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DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN'S 



INTERMEDIATE OR LARGER 



GREEK GRAMMAR, 



TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN 



A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF THE AUTHOR. 



EDITED BY 



DR. CHARLES SUPR 



Cf)ittr ([^trition^ 



CORRECTED AND IMPROVED.Vr.V 




LONDON: 
WHITTAKEU AND CO. AVE MARIA LANE. 



MDCCCXLVIII. 



^'^^ 






PREFACE OF THE EDITOR. 



In presenting this translation of Dr. Buttmann's Grammar to 
the pubHc, it would be superfluous to express in terms of high 
eulogium the sagacious views, the soundness of the rules, and 
the acuteness of philological remarks, which this work con- 
tains, or by endeavouring to recommend its practical use, whilst 
its editions have now reached the number of fifteen, from which 
latter this translation has been made. Dr. Alex. Buttmann, 
the son of the late author of this Grammar, has followed the 
footsteps of his father in the way and manner those rules and 
observations are expressed, which he has added to this new 
edition. Both the etymological as well as syntactical part have 
been greatly improved. In the former, the author succeeded 
in still more simplifying the theory of the Greek verb, this 
most essential part of all languages, but in particular of the 
Greek, on account of its greater perfection and variety ; and 
in the syntactical section, in filling up a chasm, remarked in 
former editions as to the unsatisfactory and cursory manner 
in which the rules of the moods had been treated, which was 
frequently quoted as a reasonable ground why, as to syntax, 
the preference was often given to the grammar of Matthias. 
The Greek moods, in which the nicest shades of ideas have ^ 
found a corresponding form and expression in the Greek, be- 
yond the power of other languages, and the force of which is 
often more felt, even by the experienced scholar, than he is 
able to analyse, are explained and classified with the utmost 
precision by the author. He avoided both extremes, into 
which most modern German grammarians have fallen, in either 
conveying their ideas in an abstract language, bordering on 
the abstruse, and using modern philosophical terms, little 
palatable to the general class of readers, but the least fit for 



VI PREFACE OF THE EDITOR. 



those for whom works of this sort are intended ; and, on the 
other hand, in abstaining from overlaying his observations with 
a mass of authorities and examples, requiring more philologi- 
cal knowledge than is fairly to be expected in a tyro ; whilst 
they are often superfluous for the accomplished scholar, unless 
he wishes to use such kind of works as a philological thesaurus. 

The author expresses his rules in precise but plain language, 
and prefers confining himself to a few well-chosen but striking 
examples, which are often translated and generally easily un- 
derstood. Besides the rules on the moods, those of the noun, 
article, pronoun, adjective, on the cases, on the infinitive, the 
participle, and on the attraction, have been revised and brought 
to greater perfection. The fault, therefore, which in former 
editions was often found as to the me^greness in the syntac- 
tical part of Buttmann^s Greek Grammar, may be said to be 
obviated in this new edition, and it thus fulfils all reasonable 
claims a teacher of the Greek idiom can fairly prefer. In this 
respect, we may say that this new edition will supersede the 
grammar of Matthiae, or at least confine it to that class of 
readers for whom it is calculated, whilst the grammar of Butt- 
mann will be the best qualified for the beginner, as well as the 
more advanced student in Greek literature. 

That this new edition may contribute its share to the solid 
and thorough comprehension of those unrivalled monuments of 
human genius, the literary works of ancient Greece, which will 
for ever remain the appropriate means of forming the mind, of 
endowing it with a sound judgment and an exquisite taste, of 
inspiring the mind with elevated views and principles, and the 
study of which will for ever constitute the best bulwark against 
the shallow claims of a universal philology, so much the order 
of the present day, is the wish of the Editor. 

Charles Supf. 

London, Augmt 25th, 1840. 



1 

he 1 



I 



THE 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 



Nine years have elapsed since the decease of my father, and 
already two new editions of this intermediate or larger 
Grammar have been required. The first of these two, published 
in the year 1833, was revised and superintended by Professor 
Lachmann in Berlin, to whom the author, shortly before his 
death, expressed the wish, ^ that nothing should be altered in 
this new edition, (though he was willing to admit corrections,) 
but what he himself might probably have made ; that the work 
might remain his own, in the fullest sense of the word, until 
it was superseded by a better and more perfect one/ Con- 
formably to this wish, the editor of the fourteenth edition, 
according to his own words, has corrected only some errors, and 
some expressions which were wanting in precision, whilst he 
abstained altogether from altering whatever referred to the 
general arrangement, and to the leading principles on which 
the grammatical system had been originally founded. On the 
same principle, the revision of this second, or, properly speak- 
ing, fifteenth, edition has been made ; nevertheless, I must beg 
leave to render a somewhat more minute account of those 
alterations, which I thought absolutely necessary to make the 
work more practically useful. 

In the etymological part of the Grammar, I have left un- 
changed whatever had been based in the peculiar view of the 
late author, and only then permitted myself to make some 
alterations w^here they either could be made available from the 



vm 

author's manuscripts, or contributed to clearness and precision. 
Alterations, therefore, as in the §§ 7, 9, 32, 41, 50, 60, 113, &c. 
affect but the form or arrangement in particular instances, and 
aim merely at more conciseness in expression ; the new § 71. «. 
containing a general view of the pronouns, may be used as a 
reference, and the table of page 11 comprises only the results 
of the foregoing §§. The numerals have been printed in a 
better and clearer manner, and some adjectives and participles 
have been declined throughout, with the view of rendering 
this intermediate Grammar more adapted to the use of schools, 
so that it might answer all the purposes required in a school- 
book written for beginners in the Greek language. The theory 
of the verb has remained essentially the same ; the alterations 
which have been made have merely the object of bringing the 
results of the preceding investigations under a more compre- 
hensive and systematic view. That part alone (§ 113) which 
treats of the deponens passive, an article which seems to me still 
far from being brought to a satisfactory conclusion, and still 
open to a more minute investigation, has been newly added, 
wherein I followed partly the general observations laid down in 
the Grammar of Professor Rost. 

The syntactical part of the Grammar has undergone more 
important alterations. The late author had himself repeatedly 
declared that it was imperfect in the form in which it had till 
then appeared : he had therefore resolved on making the neces- 
sary improvements, but was soon convinced of the utter impos- 
sibility of doing so, as his state of health was already then 
greatly impaired and undermined^ That something was abso- 
lutely necessary for improving this part of the Grammar was 
universally felt by all teachers who made use of this work. 
The late author, as far as his health permitted him to do so, 
had sent his few remarks on this subject to Professor Kriiger, the 
editor of the fourteenth edition, and they are to be found in 
that edition inclosed in the sign [ ]. These are the reasons 
why I felt myself equally entitled to do something more to 
this part of the Grammar. My endeavours were principally 



IX 



directed to the improvement of those syntactical rules, the 
knowledge of which is absolutely required for the more effectual 
reading and understanding of Greek prose-writers, whilst I 
took care to deviate as little as possible from the basis and 
general divisions of former editions. These new additions are 
meant to be a general outline, which is to be filled up by the 
teacher in the course of his lectures on Greek authors. I en- 
deavoured likewise, as far as it can be done in Greek syntax, 
to substitute more precise rules and terms for those which were 
open to misinterpretation, or which were conceived in too gene- 
ral a manner. In making these alterations, T am greatly in- 
debted to the Grammar of Rost, which appears most congenial 
to the views of teachers in schools. I have followed this 
Grammar sometimes as to general arrangement, and often as 
to particular points, though I preferred in essential and more 
material parts to consult those sources from which Rost had 
drawn his observations, and in consequence of which the first 
§§ to § 138 are improved and rendered more concise. But 
§ 139, containing the rules on the moods, has undergone a 
thorough change, of the necessity of which every teacher was 
convinced who wished to refer his pupils to the Grammar on 
this point, but was unable to do so from the total want of 
systematical order, so much required for classifying their mani- 
fold forms and appearances under leading points. The ar- 
rangement of this § is essentially the same as that followed 
up in the Grammar of Matthiae, Rost, and Kiihner, and must 
justify itself by its own merits. In the following §§, treating 
of the Infinitive and Participles, I was enabled to follow up 
more closely what had been laid down in former editions, 
though alterations have been made in some material points. 
The rules on the Prepositions and Particles have been left 
unchanged ; not that they did not require any improvement, 
but because I did not feel confidence enough in my being able 
at present to give results sufficiently satisfactory in this large 
and very difficult field of grammatical research, and which can 
only be obtained by an uninterrupted study of many years. 



and after a minute examination of the works of others treating 
of these most intricate questions. In the last §§ alone, several 
points and observations have been left out, partly from their 
being not sufficiently connected with each other, and partly 
from their having found a more suitable place in the preceding 
§§. The sign [ ] in former editions has been omitted, with 
the concurrence of Professor Kriiger, and have thus become 
embodied with the text itself. 

In thus presenting this new part of the Grammar to an en- 
lightened public, I confess I do so not without some hesitation, 
as I am quite aware of the great responsibility I have taken 
upon myself in altering such important points of a work, so 
long and so much valued as it has been for its sound principles 
and practical use. To this part of the Grammar, which pur- 
posely has been neglected by the late author on publishing the 
first editions, my future studies shall be exclusively directed, 
on condition that my manner of treating this subject meets 
with the approbation of a learned and discerning public. 

Alex. Buttmann. 

Potsdam, 3lst August, 1838, 



BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR 



DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN, 



REMARKS ON HIS WRITINGS. 



Doctor Philip Buttmann was born at Francfort on the 
Main, on the 5th of December, 1764. He was christened 
Philip Charles, and thus calls himself on the titles of some 
of his early writings ; but latterly called himself only Philip. 
His father, Jacob Buttmann, a wholesale stationer at Franc- 
fort, was descended from French Protestant Refugees, 
who settled there during the persecutions of Louis XIV., and 
whose French name of Boudemont was gradually changed 
by their German fellow-citizens into that of Buttmann. He 
received his first education in the Grammar-school of his native 
city, which was under the direction of the learned Purmann ; 
but the rest of the Teachers were greatly inferior to the Rector, 
and little calculated to inspire their pupils with the love of 
learning. Young Buttm Ann's predilection for the study of 
languages manifested itself, however, at any early period. In- 
dependently of the French, Danish, English, and Italian 
languages, he also applied himself to the study of theHEBREvr. 
This premature, and of course superficial acquaintance with 
seven or eight widely different languages afforded to him the 
opportunity of observations and comparisons, in which he was 
fond of indulging. In the spring of 1782, Buttmann re- 
paired to GcETTiNGEN to study PMlology under Heyne. In 
1786, he returned to Francfort, and went the same year to 



XU BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR 

visit his brother-in-law^ Dr. Ehrmann, an eminent physician 
at Strasbourg in Alsace, through whom he was introduced 
to the learned Schweigh^user. His intercourse with this 
celebrated man was of incalculable service to Buttmann. 
Schweigh^user was at that time editing his Polybius, and 
availed himself of Buttmann^s assistance. His University- 
friend, Hugo, afterwards Professor at Gcettingen, had just 
then been appointed Tutor to the Hereditary Prince of 
Anhalt Dessau. It was at his recommendation that Butt- 
mann left Strasbourg to teach Geography and Statistics to 
the Prince. A residence of eight months at Dessau intro- 
duced Buttmann to several men of merit, and familiarised 
him still more to the manners of the polite world. He em- 
ployed his leisure hours in reading the ancients with the most 
particular attention, being constantly guided by his favourite 
motto, Multum, non multa. He never left any classical difficulty 
unresolved; but when he had thoroughly convinced himself of 
the impossibility of solving it to his complete satisfaction. On 
quitting Dessau, Buttmann, in the spring of the year 1788, 
took a journey to Berlin, where he formed the most inter- 
esting connexions with men like Teller, Biester, Gedicke, 
NicoLAi, and George Spalding. His stay at Berlin had 
been so very agreeable, that after having again passed ten 
or twelve months with his family at Franc fort, he gladly 
returned to that city, having accepted the situation of an Ex- 
traordinary Assistant Librarian to the Royal Library ; but, 
as his remuneration was rather scanty, he saw himself forced 
to secure his subsistence by private teaching, and by writing 
some of his first Essays. It was in 1792 that he published 
his short Greek Grammar, on the plan of Gedicke^s Latin and 
French School-Grammars, which is at its twenty -sixth edition 
in Germany, and which has been translated into English in 
America by Professor Anthon. He now ardently devoted 
himself to the study of the Greek language and literature. 
He read the Greek Authors over again in company with 
George Spalding, the lamented University friend of the 



OF DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN. XUl 

English Translator of Buttmann's Intermediate Greek 
Grammar, which we are offering to the English pubhc. In 
1796 Buttmann was appointed Secretary to the Royal 
Library at Berlin, and in 1800 accepted the additional 
appointment of Professor at the principal Grammar-School 
of that city^ called the Joachimthal Gymnasium, He contri- 
buted several Essays to the Berlin Literary Journal, edited 
by BiESTER, entitled Berlinische Monaths Schrift. As a 
Fellow of the then existing Philomathic Society at Berlin, 
he was induced to write his short Mythological Essays. His 
Biography of himself was inserted, in the year 1806, in the 
third No. of a periodical work, edited by I. Lowe, entitled 
Portraits of the now Living Learned Men of Berlin, with their 
Lives written by themselves. In the same year, 1806, Butt- 
mann became a Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at 
Berlin, and was shortly after appointed Secretary to its His- 
torico-Philological Class. From 1803 to 1811, he was the 
Editor of the Berlin Gazette, published by Haude and 
Spener. As a member of the Royal Academy, he was one 
of the first Professors of the new Berlin University ; he 
had resigned the Professorship of the Joachimthal Grammar- 
School in 1808. It was also about this time that he was 
selected to instruct the Prince Royal of Prussia in the 
Greek _and Latin languages. In 1821 he was appointed 
Librainan to the Royal Library, and was successively elected 
a Member of the Academies of Munich, Naples, and 
Moscow ; and in 1824 the King of Prussia conferred on 
him the distinction of a Knight of the Prussian Red Eagle of 
the third Class. 

Buttmann had married at Berlin, in 1800, the eldest 
daughter of the Privy Councillor Selle, Physician to the 
King. His ardent attachment to ancient Greece induced 
him to give Greek names to his children. One of his daugh- 
ters was called Helen, and Hector and Achilles were the 
names of his sons. The loss of a beloved grown-up daughter 
in 1820, gave the first shock to his constitution, which had 



XIV BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR 

been uncommonly healthy and robust till that unfortunate 
moment. Repeated strokes of apoplexy, with which he began 
to be afflicted in 1824, undermined it gradually, and he died 
early in the morning of the 21st of June, 1829, in his sixty- 
fifth year. Dr. Schleiermacher pronounced a Funeral Ora- 
tion over his grave on the 23rd of the same month. 

Buttmann is one of the most distinguished Philologists 
of modern times. With the most extensive reading he com- 
bined the utmost sagacity, clearness, and conciseness. His 
Grammatical writings are in the hands of all scholars, and 
have been introduced into all those schools, which are really 
anxious to adopt the best methods of teaching the ancient 
languages. The Greek School-Grammar, which Buttmann 
first published in 1792, having been continually improved, as- 
sumed at last the form of an Intermediate Grammar for the more 
advanced scholar. This Intermediate Grammar had already 
reached the eighth edition in 1818, and the thirteenth in 1829. 
It is from the latter edition that the present English Trans- 
lation is made. The German original is indebted, for the 
constant and general approbation with which it has met, to 
the circumstance that it traces the elements of the Greek 
language historically, clears them up with great sagacity, and 
reduces them to a beautiful philosophical order, as far as this 
can be accomplished with regard to a language spoken by so 
many different tribes, and improved at periods widely distant 
from each other. 

When Buttmann found his Grammatical observations ac- 
cumulated to an extent beyond that which he thought cal- 
culated for the more advanced student, he resolved to embody 
them in a more elaborate work, which he entitled A Complete 
Greek Grammar {AusfUhrliche Griechische Sprachlehre), 
The first Volume was published at Berlin in 1819 ; the first 
Part of the Second Volume in 1825, and the second Part of the 
same Volume in 1827. Had his life been spared a few years 
longer, he would have added a copious Syntax to his historical 
researches, and critical explanations of the most important 



I 



OF DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN. XV 

Gr'ammatical points. It was with the same view that he pub- 
Hshed what he thought exceeding the limits of school-books 
in his Lexilogus, or Contributions to the Explanation of Greek 
Expressions, chiefly m Homer and Hesiod^ 1 vol., Berlin^ 
1818, 1824 ; ^nd vol., 1825. 

The learned world is also indebted to Buttmann for 

1.) A new edition (1811) of Four Dialogues of Plato, 
originally published by Biester ; 

2.) The Fourth Volume of the edition (1816) of Quintilian's 
Institutions, edited by the late George Spalding, which had 
been interrupted by Spalding's premature death in 1811 ; 

3.) The enlarged and much improved reprint (1821) of the 
Scholia of the Odyssea discovered by Maio ; 

4.) Several of the best Essays in Wolf's Museum of Archce- 
ology, (1st vol.. No. 1, 1807,) and in Wolf's Museum Anti- 
quitatis (vol. 1. Fasc. 1, 1808. Fasc. 2, 1811). 

Of Buttmann's smaller writings, which were mostly occa- 
sioned by his being a Member of the Berlin Royal Academy 
of Sciences, we will only mention : 

5.) The most Ancient Geography of the East, a Biblico- 
Philological Essay, with a Map, Berlin, 1803. 

6.) The first two Narratives [Mythen) of the Mosaic History, 
1804. 

7.) The Fable (Mythus) of Heracles, 1810. 

8.) The Narrative [Mythus) of the Deluge, 1812, 2nd edition, 
1819. 

9.) The Fable of Cydippe, 1815. 

10.) The Mythical Period from Cain to the Deluge, 1811. 

11.) The Necessity of the Warlike Constitution of Europe, 
1805. 

An hypothesis of the celebrated Hirt, concerning the His- 
torian QuiNTUs CuRTius, induccd Buttmann, in 1820, to 
publish a short Essay on the Life o/Quintus Curtius Rufus. 

The sagacious views and elegant urbanity which distinguish 
all these writings, are striking proofs that Grammatical and 



XVI BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN. 

Archaeological studies are not destructive of genius, and per- 
fectly compatible with native wit. It is true that Buttmann 
combined the most opposite talents. His conception was slow ; 
but this very circumstance induced him never to relinquish any 
subject which he was investigating before he had considered it 
in all its bearings, and mastered it to his entire satisfaction ; 
and his uncommon sagacity made him discover in whatever was 
the object of his study something which had not been dis- 
covered before. In all the relations of life he was most amiable ; 
and though his ready wit would frequently betray him into 
sarcastic remarks, his sarcasms never proved offensive; they 
were always tempered by his extreme good nature and in- 
dulgent disposition. His last literary labour was the editing of 
a Complete Collection of his Mythological Essays, in 2 vols., 
under the title of Buttmann's Mythologus. 

D. BOILEAU. 
V 



Erraiam — p. 238, 1. 15, for TrifiTcno read niTVTui. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

§ 1. Of the Greek Language, and its Dialects in general . . 1 

§ 2. Of the Letters of the Alphabet 8 

§ 3 — 5. Of their Pronunciation ; (Diphthongs, 12 ; Iota Sub- 

scriptum, 13) 9 

§ 6. Spiritus ; (Digamma) 14 

§ 7. Prosody 15 

§ 8—14. Accents 22 

§ 15. Punctuation 31 

§16. Interchange of Letters ib. 

§ 16—25. Change of Consonant, 31; § 17, 18, Aspiratce . . 33 

§ 19 — 25. Accumulation of Consonants 34 

§26. Moveable final Letters ; (j^ f^eXfcvtrrt/coj') 38 

§ 27, 28. Change of Vowels, and Contraction 40 

§ 29, 30. Hiatus, 45 ; Crasis, ib. ; Apostrophus .... 47 

§ 31. Parts of Speech 48 

Of the Noun. 

§ 32. Gender 49 

§ 33. Declensions 50 

§ 34. First Declension 52 

§ 35 — 37. Second Declension, 54 ; Contracta, 56 ; Attic se- 
cond Declension 56 

§ 38. Third Declension 57 

§ 38. Gender, 57 ; § 39—42. Inflection, 58 ; § 43. Paradigms 63 

§ 44. Accus. Sing. 65 ; §45. Vocative, 26. ; § 46. Dative Plural 66 

§ 47. Syncope of some Nouns in rip 67 

§ 48 — 55. Contracted (third) Declension, 68 ; Attic Genitive, 

&c 71 

§ 56. Anomalous Declension, 74 ; Heteroclitay 16 ; Metaplas- 

mus, &c. (Final Syllable (f)iv, (/><, § 56, Obs. 9, p. 78) . 76 

§ 57. Defectiva, Indeclinahilia, &c 78 

a 



XVlll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

§ 58. List of Irregular Nouns 80 

§ 59. Adjectives 85 

§ 65 — 69. Degrees of ComYiarison (Gradus Comparationis) . . 93 

§ 70, 71. Numerals 98 

§ 72. Pronouns, 102 ; and § 75. Articles ....... 107 

§ 78, 79. Pronomina et Adjectiva Correlativa 110 

§ 80. Annexes, 113; I demonstrativum 113 

Of the Verb. 
§ 81. Of the Greek Verb in general, 114; Division of Tenses 

• (Principal and Historical Tenses) 115 

§ 82—86. Augment 116 

§ 87. Numbers and Persons 123 

§ 88. Moods and Participles 125 

§ 89. Activum ; Passivum ; Medium 127 

§ 90—92. Tenses, 130; Characteristic, 131; Double Themes 

(see also § 111, 112) 131 

§ 93, 94. Formation of the Tenses 135 

§ 95. Futurum Activi 137 

§ 96. Aoristus 1 et 2 Act 143 

§ 97. Perfectum 1 et2 Act 146 

§ 98. Perfectum Passivi 150 

§ 99. Futurum^ 152 

§ 100. Aoristus 1 et 2 Pass ib. 

§ 100. a. General view of all the changes of the characteristics 

of the verb 154 

§ 101. Verbs in X, ju, V, p . 156 

§ 102. Verbal Adjectives in riog and rog 159 

§ 103. Ferbum Barytonon^WO ; Paradigm ruTrrw, 161 ; Para- 
digms of other Verbs, 170 ; Paradigm ayyeWw, 178 : 

Remarks on all the Paradigms 180 

§ 104. Tenses in use, and not in use 186 

§ 105. Conjugation of contracted verbs 187 

Irregular Conjugation. 

§ 106,107. Verbs in p 197 

§ 108. "Irjfxi, 211 ; ''Ufxai, 212 ; "Evvvfxi, 213 ; Elfjl, 213 ; ET/xt 215 

§ 109. 'I>»///J, 219; KgT^m, 220; OJSa ('Itxrj in, 222) . ... 221 



CONTENTS. XIX 

PAGE 

§ 110 — 113. Anomaly of Verbs; § 110. Syncopated Forms 
and Metathesis, 223; § 111. New Themes derived 
from the Tenses, 231 ; § 112. Anomalous Mutability 
of the Root, 232 ; § 113. Anomaly of Signification, 

238 ; . Causativa et Immediativa 229 

§114. List of Irregular Verbs 244 

§ 115. Particles, and their Degrees of Comparison .... 290 

§ 116. Particulce Correlativce 293 

§ 117. Mutability of some other Particles, 297 ; AnastropJie . 299 
§ 118, 119. Formation of Words by Terminations, (I. Verbs, 
301 ; II. Substantives, 305 ; III. Adjectives, 314 ; 

IV. Adverbs, 316) 300 

§ 120,121. Derivation by Composition 318 

Syntax. 

§ 122. General View; § 1 23. Of the Noun 326 

§ 124 — 127. Article, 327 ; and Pronouns 332 

§ 128. Neuter of the Adjectives in general 338 

§ 129. Subject and Predicate 339 

§ 130. Object ; Casus Ohliqui, 343 ; § 131. Accusative, 345 ; 

§ 132. Genitive, 349 ; § 133. Dative ..... 355 
§ 134. Verhum Passivum (Verbal Adjectives in riog and toq) . 358 

§ 135, 136. Medium 361 

§ 137, 138. Tenses, 366 ; § 138. Futurum 3 371 

§ 139. Moods, 372 ; § 139. A. Conditional Propositions, 377 ; 
B. Propositions beginning with Pronouns Relative, 
380 ; C. Propositions beginning with the Particles of 
Time, 381 ; D. Propositions expressing any Cause or 
Reason, 382 ; E. Propositions expressing any Aim or 
Purpose, 383 ; F. Propositions expressing any Infer- 
ence or Conclusion, 385 ; G. Transitive Propositions 
after the verbs ' to say,' &c. 386 ; H. Direct and in- 
direct Interrogative Propositions 387 

§ 140 — 142. Infinitive, 389 ; Attraction . 393 

§ 143. Construction with the Relative, 395 ; and its Attraction 397 
§ 144. Construction with the Participle, 399 ; § 145. Casus 

Absoluti 405 

§ 146. Particles, 407 ; § 147. Prepositions ...... 409 



XX CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

§ 148. Negative Particles, 413 ; § 149. Expletives, &c. . . 431 

§ 150. Peculiar Phrases 433 

§ 151. Particular Constructions ; I. Attraction (compare § 142 
and 143), 446 ; II. Anacoluthorii 449 ; III. Inversion, 
451 ; IV. Ellipsis 453 

APPENDIX. 

List of Words, &c., for Declension and Conjugation .... 455 

Greek Technical Grammatical Terms 467 

Abbreviations ' 468 



INDEX. 

English and Latin 471 

Greek 476 



GREEK GRAMMAR. 



§ 1. — Of the Greek Language, and its Dialects in general. 

1. The Greek language {(fnovri 'EWyivikyj) was anciently spoken 
not only in Greece^ but also in a considerable part of Asia 
Minor, the south of Italy, Sicily^ and the Greek colonies of 
other countries. Like all languages, it had several dialects, 
(SmXfjcrot,) reducible, however^ to two principal ones, the Doric 
(?7 AwpiKYj, AwpXg,) and the Ionic, (17 'Iwvlkti, ^lag,) spoken by 
two chief Greek tribes, the Dorians and lonians. 

2. The Dorians were the most considerable tribe, and founded 
the greatest number of colonies ; hence the Doric dialect pre- 
vailed in the whole interior of Greece, in Italy, and Sicily. It 
was harsh : the long a, which was prominent in it, (see § 27, 
Obs. 5,) made on the ear an impression called by the Greeks 
irXareiacTjULOQ (broad pronunciation) ; and the Doric dialect was, 
on the whole, the least improved. The ^olic dialect, (17 Alo- 
XiKTi, AloXig,) a collateral branch of the Doric, early attained in 
the -^olian colonies of Asia Minor, and the neighbouring 
islands, (Lesbos, &c.) a considerable degree of refinement, 
which probably was confined to poetry. 

3. The lonians resided in earlier times chiefly in Attica, 
whence they sent colonies to the coasts of Asia Minor. As 
these were in many respects highly civilised prior to the parent 
tribe, nay even sooner than all the other Greeks, the denomi- 
nation of lonians and Ionic applied principally, and at length 
exclusively, to these colonies and their idiom : and the original 
lonians in Attica itself were called Attics, Athenians. The 
Ionic dialect, owing to the accumulation of vowels, is the softest 
of all. But the Attic dialect, (17 ^Attikyj, 'ArOlg,) which was 
of later improvement, soon excelled in refinement all the 



2 OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE, 

other Greek dialects, by avoiding, with Attic ingenuity, both 
the Doric harshness and the Ionic softness. But though the 
Athenians really are the parent tribe, the Ionic dialect of the 
Asiatic colonies is yet considered as the parent of the Attic 
dialect, because it was improved at a period when it had 
least deviated from the primitive Ionic dialect, the common 
parent of both. 

Obs. 1. The ingenuity of the Attic dialect is most apparent in syntax, with regard 
to which it distinguishes itself, not only from all the other Greek dialects, but also 
from any other language, by an appropriate conciseness, a highly effective co-ordi- 
nation of the principal thoughts, and a certain moderation in asserting and dis- 
cussing, which had passed from the refined tone of the social intercourse of Athens 
into the language itself. 

Obs. 2. Of other collateral branches of the mentioned dialects, as the Boeotic, the 
Laconic, and the Thessalic, Sec, we have only solitary words and grammatical forms 
in scattered fragments, inscriptions, &c. 

4. We must admit, as the parent of all the Greek dialects, 
an ancient primitive Greek language, of which philosophical 
grammatical inquiries alone may discover or rather conjecture 
some traces. Each dialect had naturally retained more or less 
of this ancient language, and each must also undoubtedly have 
preserved something, which had gradually been lost in the 
other dialects. This circumstance obviously accounts for gram- 
marians tracing Dorisms, ^olisms, and even Atticisms in the 
old Ionian Homer. Whatever was of habitual or frequent 
occurrence in one dialect was exclusively ascribed to this dia- 
lect, and designated accordingly, even if it likewise occurred, 
though less frequently, in other dialects. It is thus, for in- 
stance, that we must understand what are called Dorisms in 
Attic writers, and Atticisms in writers who are not Attics^. 

5. Most poetical forms and licences spring from this ancient 
language. The poet, it is true, improves his idiom, and through 
him only it becomes a polished language, forming a harmonious, 
expressive, and copious whole. Yet the poet never originates 
the changes and innovations which he finds necessary ; this 
would be the surest way to displease. The oldest Greek bards 
selected, out of the manifold extant forms of speech, those 
which best suited them. Several of these forms became anti- 
quated in practice ; but the later poet, having these predecessors 

* Ex. (jr. the Doric fut. aovfxai, ^ovfjiai, the Attic declension (og, the Attic ^vv for 
fTVV, &c. . 



AND ITS DIALECTS IN GENERAL. 6 

before him, would not be debarred from such treasures, and 
thus what had been originally a real dialect, and is justly 
considered as such, became a poetical peculiarity, or what is 
called a poetical licence ^ 

6. In all civilised nations one of their dialects generally be- 
comes the foundation of their common written language, and 
the language of polished society. This was not immediately 
the case with the Greeks. They became civilised, when they 
still formed distinct locally and politically separated states. 
Nearly up to the time of Alexander, the Greeks wrote in the 
dialect in which they had been brought up, or to which they 
were most partial; and thus arose Ionic, ^olic, Doric, and 
Attic poets and prose-writers, v^^hose works are more or less 
extant. 

Obs. 3. Only great works, which attracted general attention, as epic and dramatic 
poems, formed an exception. Their authors unquestionably wrote in the dialect of 
their country ; but an imitation of them in another dialect, which, besides, would 
have required an almost equal creative talent, would not have been well received, 
because all the tribes of Greeks were already familiarised to the language proper 
for this species of composition, and could not separate one from the other. The 
dialect, in which the first masterpieces of any species of writing were composed, 
continued to be the dialect of that species. (See the Text, 10, IL) 

Obs. 4. The most ancient poets, Homer, Hesiod, Theognis, and others, wrote in 
the Ionic dialect ; but their language is rather that apparently mixed one, which 
comes nearest to the oldest language, and afterwards continued to be the poetical 
dialect used in most species of poetry. The real, but more modern Ionic dialect is 
to be found in the prose-writers, of whom Herodotus and Hippocrates are the most 
conspicuous, though both Dorians by origin. The Ionic dialect, owing to its pecu- 
liar softness and early improvement, had already become pretty general, even in 
prose, especially in Asia Minor. 

Obs. 5. The lyrics are the only poets of that time, who wrote in all the dialects. 
But the oldest and most celebrated of them were ^olians ; at their head are 
Sappho and Alcseus, of whom some few scanty remains have been handed down to 
us in fragments. Anacreo (of whom we have also but a few, partly crippled, and 
partly questionable, remains) wrote in the Ionic dialect. Most of the other lyric 
poets wrote in the Doric dialect ; out of the manifold forms of this widely-diffused 
dialect, they selected those which suited them, and created, as it were, each his 
own language. Pindar is the only one of these latter, of whom we have some entire 
poems. 

2 But this must not be understood, as if every expression of the ancient poets 
had actually been once in common use. The privilege which, even in the most 
copious language, a modern poet enjoys of forming new words, and giving new- 
inflections to the existing ones, must have been still more largely allowed to the 
ancient poets, at a time when the language was poor. The materials, however, out 
of which, and the form according to which, he models his expressions, are not of 
the poet's creation, but derived from the stock, and conformable to the analogy of 
the language. Neither can a slight polishing of the usual forms, practised in com- 
mon life even by ordinary men, be denied to him, to whom harmony is a duty, and 
rhythmical metre a chain. 

B 2 



4 OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE^ 

Ohs. G. Tlic few prose-writings which we have in the Doric dialect are mostly on 
niatlieniatical and philosophical subjects. With regard to Attic writers, see the 
following Obscrtations. 

7. In the mean time, Athens rose to such a poHtical height, 
that it maintained for a while a kind of supremacy over all 
Greece, and became the centre of all scientific culture. The 
democratic constitution, nowhere so unmixed, introduced to 
the Attic forum, and the Attic stage, that freedom of speech, 
which, in connexion with other advantages, was alone sufficient 
to raise, not only these branches of literature, but also those 
congenial ones, history and philosophy, to the highest pitch, 
and impart to the Attic idiom a perfection and capaciousness 
which no other dialect attained. 

Ohs. 7. The most distinguished prose-writers of Greece, (we treat separately of 
its poets,) of this golden age of Attic literature, are Thucydides, Xenopho, Plato, 
Lysias, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and the other orators. 

8. Greeks of all tribes repaired to Athens for improvement ; 
and Attic masterpieces served as models in the most extensive 
fields of literature. The consequence was that the Attic dialect, 
which maintained its pre-eminence over all others, became soon 
after, when Greece acquired a complete political unity under 
the Macedonian monarchs, the court-language and the general 
language of books, in which the prose-writers of all the Greek 
tribes and countries composed almost exclusively. This lan- 
guage was now taught in schools, and grammarians pronounced, 
according to these Attic models, on what was genuine or not 
genuine Attic. The central point of this later Greek literature 
was under the Ptolemies at Alexandria in Egypt. 

9. But in proportion as the Attic dialect became general, it 
naturally also began gradually to degenerate ; partly because 
authors indulged in an admixture of their own provincial 
dialects, and partly because they substituted for anomalies and 
apparently affected expressions peculiar to the Athenians, more 
regular and natural ones, or introduced, instead of a simple 
term more or less obsolete in common life, a derivative one, 
which was now more generally used\ Grammarians, how- 
ever, (this class of them are called Atticists,) often endeavoured, 
with much pedantry and exaggeration, to prevent this, and 
in their school-books contrasted the expressions of the old 

' Ex.gr. I'TJxtoOai for veiv, * to swim ;' aporpi^v for dpovv, Ho plough.' 



AND ITS DIALECTS IN GENERAL. 5 

Attic writers with those which they criticised as faulty or less 
elegant. Thus arose the practice of calling Attic only the 
language found in the old Attic writers, and, in a more re- 
stricted sense, the peculiarities of those authors ; the usual 
language of persons of education, which was an offspring of the 
Attic, was now called Koivrj, the general language, or 'EXXr^vtKrj 
(the Greek, i. e., the common Greek) ; even the writers of later 
times were denominated ol kolvoI, or ot "EXXrjvecj in contradis- 
tinction to the genuine Attics. But this never can be considered 
as a particular dialect ; for the Koivrj diaXEKroQ continued in the 
main to be Attic, and hence Atticism is the principal object of 
every Greek Grammar, 

Obs. 8. It may easily be conceived that in these circumstances the denomination 
KoivoQ, KOLvbv, was considered as imputing something faulty, and though it properly 
denotes ' the language common to all Greeks, not excluding genuine Attic,' it rather 
denoted, with grammarians, ' a language which was not genuine Attic' On the 
other hand, all which is called Attic, is not on that account exclusively of Attic 
form, not even in genuine Attic writers. Many an Attic locution was not in con- 
stant general use, even at Athens, but alternated with other forms, (ex. gr. (piXoirj 
with (piKol, ^vv with uvv,) which were generally used. Neither were the Athenians 
strangers to many Ionic forms, {ex.gr. not contracted, instead of contracted ones,) 
which therefore might be employed by authors, who all consulted the ear. This 
approximation to lonism is the principal criterion of strictly ancient Atticism, such 
as we find in Thucydides ; but Demosthenes wrote that later Attic, which forms 
the transition to the more modei-n Koivrj. 

Obs. 9. To make an accurate and proper division, we must commence the more 
modern period, or the kolvovq, with the first non- Athenian, who wrote Attic. Of 
this class are Aristotle, Theophi'astus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and the other 
later authors, many of whom endeavoured, however, to excel, as much as possible, 
in the old Attic language. This is especially the case with Luciau, ^lian, and 
Arrian. 

Obs. 10. Of the provincial dialects, which crept into the later Greek language, 
the Macedonian is the principal. The Macedonians were a kindred nation of the 
Greeks, accoimted themselves Dorians, and carried as conquerors Greek civilisation 
into the barbarian countries over which they ruled. In these countries Greek was 
now spoken and written, but not without an admixture of peculiarities, which the 
grammarians style Macedonian forms ; and as the seat of this later Greek culture 
was chiefly in Egypt, at Alexandria, its capital, the same forms are likewise deno- 
minated the Alexaiidrian dialect. But the inhabitants of these countries, who were 
not Greeks, now also began to speak Greek, ('EWj^i't^ftv,) and an Asiatic, Syrian, 
&c., who spoke Greek, was called 'B\\r)viaTi]Q. Thus originated the practice of 
diQrxomxuSiimgHellemstic the language, which is mixed with several foi'ms not Greek, 
and contains tui'ns of expression peculiar to the East. This language is chiefly met 
with in the written Jewish and Christian monuments of that period, especially in 
the Greek translation of the Old Testament by the LXX ti'anslators, and in the 
New Testament, whence it passed more or less into the works of the Fathers of the 
Church. New barbarisms of all kinds crept into this language in the middle age, 
when Constantinople, the ancient Byzantium, was the seat of the Greek empire, 



6 OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE^ 

and the centre of the literature of that time ; hence arose the language of the 
Byzantine writers, and lastly the Modem Greek. 

10. But the Attic dialect was not general with regard to 
poetry ; the Athenians were models only in one species, the 
dramatic ; and as dramatic poetry from its nature merely is, 
even in tragedy, the ennobled language of real life, no other 
dialect reigned on the Athenian stage than the Attic, which 
war in the sequel retained by all the other Greek theatres *. In 
the dialogued part of the drama, and especially in that which 
consisted of Trimetries or Senaries, poets, though indulging 
in the frequent use of the apostrophus, and of contractions, 
allowed themselves but few poetical licences and changes of 
forms. 

Obs. 11. These licences least indulged in were, as may be supposed, by comic 
writers ; but many a Homeric form would suit the tragic Senary. Of the Greek 
dramatists none have been handed down to us but genuine and old Attic writers, viz. 
the tragic poets ^Eschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and the comic poet Aristophanes. 

11. Homer, and the other ancient Ionic poets, whose works 
were read in schools, continued uninterruptedly to be models 
for all other species of poems, especially those composed in 
hexameters, the epic, didactic, and elegiac : and through these 
poems the old Ionic or Homeric idiom was preserved with all 
its peculiarities and antiquated forms. It thus became, what 
the Attic was for prose-writers, the prevailing dialect or general 
language for epic, didactic, and elegiac poetry in the Alexan- 
drian period, and at a later time, when it was no longer readily 
intelligible to the common people, and required a learned 
education to be completely understood and relished. This 
language may be denominated the Epic idiom, as it was derived 
entirely from epic poetry. 

Obs. 12. The most eminent poets of this class in the Alexandrian period are 
Apollonius, Callimachus, Aratus ; and later, Nicander, Oppian, Quintus, and others. 

12. But the Doric dialect was by no means excluded from 
poetry even in later times. It maintained itself in light and 
especially rural and jocose poetry, partly because there were 
predecessors in this line, and probably also because several of 
these poems describe the manners and expressions of country 
people and of the lower ranks, whose language, owing to the 



^ See Obs. 3. 



1 



AND ITS DIALECTS IN GENERAL.. 7 

almost general dispersion of the Dorians, was nearly every 
where the Doric. — (Compare above, 2.) 

Obs. 13. Hence the Doric dialect prevails in the Bucolic writers, Theocritus, 
Moschus, and Bio, whose more modern Dorism is, however, greatly different from 
that of Pindar. The old epigrams were partly in the Ionic, and partly in the Doric 
dialect ; but the Dorism in this species of poetry was far simpler and nobler, and 
confined to a small number of characteristic Doric forms, which were familiar to the 
Avell-informed poets of every tribe. 

13. The idiom which prevails in the lyric parts of the drama, 
i. e., in choruses and pathetic speeches, is also usually called 
Doric ; but this Dorism consisted almost entirely in the preva- 
lence of the a long, especially in lieu of ij, which was peculiar 
to the old language in general, and, on account of its gravity, 
maintained itself in solemn hymns, whilst the Dorians alone 
retained it in common life ^ But this lyric language also a]dfl^ 
proximated to the epic in several respects. 

^ See par. 2. There are, however, no Dorisms properly so called in the theatrical 
choinises, as infin. ending in iv and riv, accus. pi. in mq and og, &c. 



FIRST PART. 



GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 

WRITING AND PRONUNCIATION. 



§ 2. — Alphabetical Letters. 

The Greeks received most of their letters fr©m the Phenicians ; 
this is evident from the oriental names by which they are called, 
ff hey are the following : — 







PRONOUNCED 


NAMED 


A 


a 


a, aw 


"A\(pa 


alpha 


B 


/3C 


b. 


BrjTa 


beta 


r 


yf 


S> 


rdjuiuLa 


gamma 


A 


g 


d, 


AiXra 


delta 


E 


■^ 


e, a short 


''E 4>iXhv 


epsilon * 


Z 


z 


ds^ 


ZriTa 


zeta 


H 


n 


e, a long 


'"Era 


eta 


e 


^,0 


th. 


• QriTa 


theta 


I 


I 


i, ee 


Iwra 


iota (not jota) 


K 


K 


k. 


KaTTTra 


cappa 


A 


X 


1, 


Aaju/3^a 


lambda 


M 


A^ 


m, 


Mu 


my 


N 


V 


n. 


m 


ny 


^ 


5 


X, 


m 


xi 





O 


o^ short 


^0 jULlK^bv 


omicron (short o) 


n 


TT, t^ 


P. 


m 


pi 


p 


P. ^ 


r, rh 


'Po. 


rho 


2 


«^5 C 


s^ 


2t7/xa 


sigma 


T 


r,7 


t, 


TaO 


tau 


Y 


V 


U, 00 


"Y^iX^v 


ypsilon ^ 


4> 


^ 


f. 


^t 


phi 


X 


X 


ch, 


XX 


chi 


^ 


"^ 


ps. 


^r 


psi 


£1 


(Jj 


long 


'Q jUfya 


omega (long o.) 



1 "E xpiXbv and ''Y xpiXbv take the additional tpiXbv, that is lene, not aspirate, because 
in ancient Greek writings the figure « was at the same time one of the marks of the 



PRONUNCIATION. 9 

Obs. 1. The letter cr is used only in the beginning and in the middle of words, 
g at the end ; this q must not be confounded with t. See the following §. Still we 
often meet with the letter g in the middle of compound words, as in ovgrtvag, Trpog- 
<pep(jj, sigrjvsyKe, the first part of which consists of words which, if taken separately, 
are in use. But words like dvaOavi^g, (pipkafSiog, aaKsaTraXog, are better written 
with an (T in the middle. Words which are not compoimd, admit only the letter tr, 
as Koajxogj and not Kogfiog. In some, for the most part old editions, the character^ 
(3 and €, y and /, ^ and ^, B and 9, tt and -zsr, r and % are used indiscriminately. 

Obs. 2. These letters have given rise to a number of abbreviations and flourishes, 
many of which occupy more space than the common character which they are to 
supply. Hence they have been rarely employed of late, and there is httle difficulty 
to be encountered in modern editions, in remembering that 

8 stands for ov ^ for oq t^ for or 

(S" for (70 0^ for ax 4 for Kai. 

A complete list of abbreviations will be found in the Appendix. 

Obs. 3. The Greeks employed their alphabetical letters also as numerals ; but to 
have a sufficiency of them, inserted after the e the r, (here called Bai), Vau, not or,) 
after the tt the ^, (KoTTTra, for 90,) and after the w the 2, (Sa/A7rT, for 900.) ^ All 
letters when used as numerals are distinguished by a stroke at the top in this 
mauner : a I, (5' 2, 7' 6, i 10, la' 11, k' 20, kt' 2G, p' 100, <x' 200, 0-^/3' 232, &c. The 
thousands begin again with a, but with a stroke underneath, a 1000, (3, &c., 
i8<TX/3' 2232. 

§ 3. — Pronunciation, 

1. The ancient pronunciation can no longer be accurately 
ascertained. Of the modern way of pronouncing the Greeks 
the two principal are those of Reuchlin and Erasmus. We 
follow the latter, which not only is becoming more general 
every day, but also has most internal grounds in its favor, and 
is greatly confirmed by the way in which Greek names and 
words are written by the Latins, and Latin ones by the Greeks. 
Reuchlin^s pronunciation agrees chiefly with the pronunciation 
of the modern Greeks, who persist in defending it as the true 
and ancient way of pronouncing the Greek. 

Obs. 1. The manner of writing Greek with Latin charactei's may be seen in the 
names of the letters, which we have given above in Latin characters, and may be 
learned from what is stated in this section, and in § 5 and 6. According to Reuch- 
lin's pronunciation, the rj is sounded Uke i, ee, the diphthong at like ce, and the 
sounds £t, 01, V, and vl are not distinguished from t : the v in all diphthongs (except 
ov) is pronounced like v or/, as avTog, aftos, Zevg, Zevs. This pi'onunciation appears 
to be really built in the main on ancient pronunciation ; but never can have been 
the pronunciation of the prevailing dialect. This is unquestionably evident from 

spirilus asper, (h,) and v represented also the Digamma (or Latin V, see § 6, 06s. 3). 
The epithet ^piXbv was intended to distinguish them, when they were mere vowels, 
fi'om the signs of aspiration. 

2 This character or flourish is called sti, and sometimes also stigma. 

3 These three numerical characters, of which the first t agrees only accidentally 
with the modern abbreviation <r, were originally letters of an antiquated alphabet. 



10 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

the manner in which the Greeks wrote Latin words and names : 07](3ij, Thebe, Pom- 
pejuttj UonTn'iioQf Clmcdius, KXavdiog. Were the modern way of pronouncing the oi 
like I correct, the Latins could not have made Poeas of Uoiag, or the Greeks 
KXoiXt'a of Clcelia ; and even KaiKiXiog, Kalcrap, for Ccec'ilius, Ccesar, &c., is not 
decisive in behalf of ce for ai, as we have no positive information respecting the 
pronunciation of the Latin diphthongs ^. 

2. With regard to some letters^ it may be observed that — 

y before another y, and before the other dentals, {k, x, %,) is 
pronounced like ng, ex. gr. lyyvQ, eng-gus, (or like the 
Latin angustus,) avyKpicriQ, syncrisis ; 'Ayxio-rjc^ Anchises ; 
S^iyl, Sphinx"^. 

Z must not be pronounced like ts, but like ds, or the French Zy 
dz. In the ancient language it was sounded sd, 

T] is by some constantly pronounced like ae. It is barely pos- 
sible that it was pronounced as <s or e according as it was 
derived from a or e. 

^ is generally not distinguished from r : but among the ancients 
it belonged to the aspirate, and is still pronounced lisping 
by the modern Greeks, like the English th, 

I is merely the i vowel, not the J consonant; and 'la/mlSog, ^Iwvia 
must therefore be pronounced i-ambos, I-onia. Yet the 
Greeks employed it in foreign names for the j: for in- 
stance, 'IovXloq, Julius ; UojULTrti'log, Pompejus. 

K is always expressed in Latin even before e and i by a c, and 
the Latin c is constantly a ic in the Greek ; for instance, 
Ktjuwv, Cimo, Cicero, KiKepMv, because the Romans pro- 
nounced the c before all vowels like a k. 

V. See its pronunciation at the end of words, § 23, Obs, 4. 

p. See about its aspiration ^o (rh,) § 6, 3. 

<T in general may be pronounced like the French q with e, cedille, 
or like a sharp 5. 

r before l with another vowel must not be pronounced like a z 
as in Latin. Say VaXariay Galatia, not Galazia. Kptriat,', 
Critias, T^phnog, Terentius. 

V was in modern times long pronounced like t, but it is well 
ascertained that the Greeks and the Latins, who made it 
a y, pronounced it like the French w. In Latin names it 

' As this method of pronouncing assimilates so many sounds to that of the iota, 
it is called iotacismus, (or, from ita for eta,) itacismus; that of Erasmus is called 
etac'tsmus. 

2 In all these cases the Latin n has the pronunciation of ng : from an inveterate 
mistake we say An-chises instead of Ang-ckises. 



DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 11 

frequently supplies the short u, which was wanting in 
Greek; for instance, 'Pw^wXoc, Romulus, Compare § 5. 
Obs, 3. 

and ;;^. Their exact pronunciation is still uncertain. Though 
the Greeks always used their for the Latin/, (as, $aj3toc, 
Fabius,) yet the Latins never used their / for Greek words 
with a 05 but always wrote ph. Hence it is evident that 
we are ignorant of the exact pronunciation either of the 
Latin f, or the Greek 0, ph, and the case is the same with 
X, ch. 

(TX- These characters must be pronounced distinctly and sepa- 
rately from each other; for instance, cxoX?), pronounce 
s-chole. 



§ 4. — Division of the Letters, 

1. The letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants; 
the former are again subdivided according to their quantity. 
See § 7. 

2. We must first detach from the consonants the three 
double letters, ^, 5, ip, each of which represents two letters, for 
which there is but one sign or character in writing. See § 22 ; 
and about 2, § 3. 

3. Simple consonants, being fourteen in number, are divided — 
a) according to the organs with which they are pro- 
nounced ; 

j3, TT, 0, ju, are labials, 
Sj r, Of V, A, jO, 0", Unguals, 
y, K, x? palatals : 
b) according to their properties ^ — 
1.) Semivowels; viz. 

liquids . . . X, /z, v, p, 
the simple hissing sound . a, 

* In this division, as well as in other grammatical matters, it is proper to adhere 
to the Latin denominations, which are, as it were, proper names. The ancients 
found in the humming and hissing of the letters I, m, n, r, s, a transition to the 
vowels, and therefore called them semi-wwels ; and the first four were named 
liquids, on account of their mobility and easily combining with other letters. They 
denominated all the other consonants mutes, in contradistinction to the vowels. Of 
these mutes, those which are attended with an aspiration appeared to have a kind 
of thickness or roughness, (J^aav,) which was not perceivable in three of them ; 
which on that account were called thin, soft, or smooth, (i//iXd, tenues,) and the 
three medice, raedials, certainly stand in the middle between the two former. 



12 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

2.) Mutes, viz. 

aspirat(B, aspirates . . ^, ;Y5 ^« 
media, medials . . j3, 7, 3. 

tenues, softs . . . w, k, r» 

Hence it appears that each organ has the three mutes, and that 

these nine consonants placed in this way — 

^ X ^ 

IT K T 

correspond to each other in both directions, horizontal and 
perpendicular. 

4. Of the liquid consonants, ju, v, are nasal sounds belonging 
to the two first organs ; the j before another palatal consonant 
being attended with a nasal sound is the same for the third 
organ, (§ 3, 2,) as may be seen on comparing syllabic combina- 
tions like 

Ifiira — Ivra — lyKa, 
On the interchanges of v, see § 25. 

Ohs. ThfcX'e are thus in each organ four letters, which correspond one to another ; 
the lingual organ alone, owing to the greater mobility of the foretongue, and to the 
operation of the teeth, has a few sounds more j in Greek, \, p, or. 

5. No genuine Greek word can end in any consonant but one 
of the three semivowels, g, v, p, for ^ and ip belong to the a-. 
Only Ik and ovk. constitute an exception ; but they can be used 
in this form merely before other words, with which they coalesce 
in pronunciation. (See § 26.) 

§ 5. Dipththongs, 

1 . The ancient pronunciation of the Greek diphthongs is far 
from having been ascertained; hence we pronounce most of 
them separately or distinctly, but in one syllable. The manner, 
in which they were rendered by the Latins, will appear from 
the following examples : — 

m pronounced ai, ^dl^pog, Faidros, Phcedrus, 

u „ ei, NaXoc^ Neilos, Nilus ; AvKelov, Lukeion, 

Lyceum. 

01 „ oi, BoitoTia, Boiotia, Bceotia. 

VI „ ui, (like the French ui or uy in lui, tuyau.) 

ElXuOvLa, Eileithuia, Ilithyia. 

av „ au, rXavKo^, Glaukos, Glaucus. 



DIPHTHONGS. 13 

£u ) J r Evpoc, Euros, EurusK 

V pronounced eu, ^ -^y rr ,/?• x 

r}v ) i r]vt,ovj (irom au^w,) euxon. 

ov 55 U5 (00) Moucra5 Musa, Musa (long u). 

wv is merely Ionic ; for instance^ wyrog, outos. 

Obs. 1. But the Latins are not steady in their manner of writing the diphthong 
£t, as is proved by their writing 'J^iyevsia, Iphigenia, Mrjdeta, Medea, 'Hpa'/cXsirog, 
HeracUtus, UoXvicXeiTOQ, Polycletus. Some few words in aia, oia, undergo no 
change in Latin, excepting that the i vowel is changed into the 7 consonant : Maia, 
'Axaia, Tpoia, Maja, Achaja, Troja. 

2. The improper diphthongs are written with an iota {iota 
subscriptum) underneath the three following vowels : 

a, y, w. 
This changes nothing in their pronunciation^ and merely serves 
to point at the etymology of the word in which they occur ; but 
originally it influenced the pronunciation. The ancients also 
wrote it in the line, and this is still done with capital letters : 
as. THI SOCIAL ty} (jo6ia, tw "AiBn or ady, 

Obs. 2. The old national Greek grammarians likewise rank rjv, mv, and vi, among 
the improper dipththongs, of which they say, that one of their vowels is long, and 
the other short, whilst all the others contain but two rapidly pronounced short 
vowels. All dipththongs, therefore, may be easily divided into two classes : 
six, properly so called : at, ei, 01 ; av, ev, ov, and 
six, improperly so called : vi, riv, wv ; g., y, i>). 
Hence it appears, that in order to distinguish i]v from eu, the e must be sounded 
stronger, and the same ought to be observed with regard to mv and vi. It is like- 
wise very evident that the case must have been the same with ^, y, and ^, at the 
time when the i was sounded with them, which must have been the usual pronxm- 
ciation in the strictly classical times, as is proved by the Latins writing tragoedus, 
comoedus, for Tpaytji^oQ, KOJfJKpdog. But it is also equally manifest from the words 
adopted at a later period, a.s prosodia, ode, for irpoaijjdia, i^dt), that ^ was then no 
longer distinguished from w. We now adhere thoroughly to this equally genuine 
pronunciation. 

Obs. 3. The ow, indeed, sounds only as one vowel, and therefore is no real diph- 
thong ; but we leave it in its own place, because it also differs essentially from the 
three others, in which there is only one of the two written vowels sounded, whilst 
in ov there is, as it were, a third mixed sound of o and v, just as ce has a sound 
between a and e. The short v was also in the oldest language, and remained in the 
-^ohc dialect, and in Latin, as the idiom most nearly related to that dialect. It 
was expressed by the kindred lettei-s and v, and in later times probably by the s, 
a compound of both letters. The Homeric (SoXeaOs is of this description. See 
Verb. Anom. v. (BovXofiai. 

1 Whenever a vowel follows ev and av, it is now usually written in Latin with a 
V, as Evav, Evan, 'Ayavr], Agate, and pronounced accordingly. This evidently is 
a remnant of Reuchlin's pronunciation ; but is incorrect. We ought to write and 
pronounce in Latin Agaue and Euan. 



li A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§ 6. — Spiritus, Breathing, 

1. The Greek letters have two signs or marks : 

' Spiritus lenis, {irveviLia ipiXbv, the slight aspirate,) 
' Spiritus asper [irvtv^a daav, the strong aspirate). 
Both these aspirates are usually placed only over vowels in 
the beginning of words ; for instance, "Ojujjpoc^ Homerus. The 
Spir. asper is the h aspirate : the lenis is used when other lan- 
guages begin the word simply with the vowel, as lyw, ego. But 
in Prosody and Grammar both kinds of words are considered 
as beginning merely with a vowel : thus with regard to the 
apostrophus, (§ 30,) and to the moveable v (v l(l)e\KV(TTLKov, § 26). 

2. When the Spiritus falls on a diphthong, it is placed, like 
the accents, on the second letter: as EvpiTridrig, olog. But this 
is not done with the improper diphthongs : as, "At^rjc (o^'^^c). 

3. The Spiritus asper is attached to p in the beginning of a 
word ; and two p's in the middle are marked p p. This is de- 
rived from a peculiarity of the ancient language ; hence ' the 
Latins never neglect it in Greek words : as, 

priTwp, rhetor, UvppoQ, Pyrrhus. 

Obs. 1 . Both spiritus are distinct letters in other languages ; the lenis is the alef 
or elif of the orientals. Neither is this an idle sign. Every vowel uttered without 
a consonant, and consequently every vowel which is to be pronounced distinctly and 
sepai-ately from the preceding letter \ is actually introduced by a slight audible 
aspiration, which the ancients had greater occasion to mark in their writing, as they 
did not separate their words. 

Obs. 2. The spir. asper was frequently neglected by the /Eolians, and sometimes 
by the lonians : hence we meet in epics with vixfiiv for vixlv, aXro from aXXofiai, 
rjkXiog for jjXioq, &c. 

Obs. 3. The most ancient Greek language had along with these two spiritus an 
additional aspiration, which maintained itself the longest among the Cohans. It 
is usually called digamma, a double F, from the figure of its sign, F, and properly 
was a consonant pronounced like the Latin V, and applied to several words, which, 
in the better known dialects, have either the spir. asper or the lenis. But whatever 
relates to the digamma is still involved in great obscurity, owing to the want of 
monuments. The Homeric digamma, so much discussed of late, rests on the follow- 
ing remarkable circumstance : — A certain number of words beginning with a vowel, 
the principal of which are the pronouns ov, oi, e, and the words tiSu), 'ioiKa, eiTreiv, 
ava^, 'iXioQ, olvog, oIkoq, tpyov, laog, SKacrrog, and their derivatives, so frequently 
have the hiatus in Homer (see § 28) before them, that on omitting them, the liiatus, 
now so frequent in Homer, seldom occurs, and is then easily accounted for in the 
few instances which remain. These very words, comparatively with others, have 
rarely an apostrophus before them, and the long voAvels and diphthongs, which are 
immediately preceding, are much less frequently shortened than before other words, 
(see § 7, Obs.) so that we must conclude that there was something in the beginning 

^ For instance, when wc correctly pronounce Ab-origines instead of A-borigines. 



PROSODY. 15 

of those words, by which both (the apostrophus and the shortening of the vowels) 
was prevented, and the hiatus removed. And as short vowels with a consonant 
(for instance, og, ov) often become long in these words, even exclusively of the 
caesura, as if there were Si position, it has been ingeniously conjectured in modern 
times, that all these words had in Homer's mouth this aspiration, (V,) with the 
power of a consonant before them, but had lost it at the far later period, when 
Homer's poems were written down. But as these poems are known to have under- 
gone so many changes and additions before that time, and even after, the instances 
where the traces of the digamma in Homer have disappeared are very obviously 
explained. We must also remember that the disappearance or gi-adual vanishing 
of the digamma may possibly have commenced in Homer's time, and that many a 
word may have been pronounced sometimes with and sometimes without it. 

§ 7. Prosody. 

1. Prosody, according to the modern acceptation of the word, 
is the theory of the quantity of syllables ; that is to say, their 
length, [productio,) or their shortness [correptio) \ 

2. Every word and grammatical form had for each syllable, 
with very few exceptions, a fixed quantity, which regulated the 
pronunciation of the Greeks in their common intercourse, and 
must therefore be known, to pronounce the Greek correctly. 

Ohs. I. Hence it is evident how greatly they err, who detach Prosody from Gram- 
mar, and consider it merely as a theory necessary for the understanding of poetry. 
The error proceeds from the circumstance, that hearing no longer the common pro- 
nunciation of the ancients, we learn the quantity of syllables from the works of the 
poets, who indulged in peculiarities and licenses. Thus we have in many instances, 
along with the fixed quantity, a poetical quantity, of which the most important 
points are stated in the Observations. 

3. Grammar notes the quantity of syllables with the following 
two marks over the vowel, (~) long, (*^) short; for instance, 

a short a, a long a. 

a doubtful or fluctuating. 

4. Any syllable, the length of which is not distinctly ascer- 
tained, is presumed to be short. 

5. A syllable is long either, 1, by the nature of the vowel, or 
2, hy position. 

6. A syllable is, 1, long by nature, when its vowel is a long 
one ; as, for instance, the middle syllable of amare, docere, in 
Latin. This is denoted in Greek partly by the characters 
themselves ; of the simple vowels, 

r] and w are always long, 
£ and o always short. 

^ But the ancient Greek grammarians comprise in 7rpo(T(fdiat ' whatever affects 
the sound of a syllable,' and consequently also ' both accents and spiritus.' 



16 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

They therefore require no comment. But the three others, 

a, I, V, 
are, like all Latin vowels, both long and short, and hence are 
called doubtful or fluctuating, in Latin ancipites. 

Obs. 2. But this must not be understood as if there were in the nature of the 
sounds a, i, v, something fluctuating between length and shortness. All vowels are 
fixedly (positively) long in some words, and fixedly short in others ; but it is only 
for the e and o that the Greeks have particular characters in either case. The 
quantity of a, i, v, is leai'ned in the same way as we learn it, in Latin, of all the 
five vowels. But if one of the three vowels be actually fluctuating in some Grreek 
words, ex. gr. the a in KoXbg, the i in ctvia, the case is the same with e and o being 
written in two ways in the same words, as in rpoxdu) and rjOw%aai, aCJoQ and croog, 
vrjaQ and veaQ, which cannot be distinguished in the most ancient writing. 

7. With respect to the length by nature, it is a general rule 
that two vowels, giving but one sound, constitute a long syl- 
lable. Hence 

1.) All diphthongs, without exception, are long; e<^.^r. the 
penultima in jdaaiXeiog, kira^io. 

2.) All contractions are long, and in this instance the fluc- 
tuating vowels are constantly long ; ea?. gr. the a in clkojv for 
aUiov, the I in Iphg for hpog, the v in the accus. jdorpvg for 
jSorpuac. See § 28. 

06s. 3. But elisions {ex. gr. cnrayM for a7ro-aya>) must be carefully distinguished 
from contractions, as is stated in §§ 28 — 30. 

8. A syllable is long, 2, even with a short vowel by position, 
that is to say when it is followed by two or more consonants, or 
a double letter ; eoo. gr. the penultima in XlyeaOai, fiiyicrTog, 
KadtXKU), (diXefjLvov, a\poppog, KaOl^u), voiuiZ(j>i» 

Obs. 4. There is frequently a long vowel along with the position. In this case 
it is a very customary fault to be satisfied with the length by position without 
lengthening the vowel in pronunciation. - It ought, however, to be lengthened not 
only in ArjfxvoQ, (pronounced Lehmnos,) opTrrjK, Xapojvdag, Sec, not only where there 
is a circumflex, (§ 11, i.) as in [xaXXov, Trpa^te, but also in TrpaVrw, Trpa^w, the 
length of whose a is obvious from the kindred forms, which have the circumflex, 
{Trpa^ig, irpayfia,) whilst the a in tcitto), rd^u), is short as in rd^ig. And just as 
we distinguish the final syllables of KvK\u)\f/ and KsKpotp, we must observe the same 
distinction in Oupa^, where the first syllable is long, (gen. OojpdKog,) and in avXa^, 
where it is short (gen. avXaKog). The length and shortness of the fluctuating 
vowels before a position, to obtain a correct pronunciation, must be learned by 
attending to the accents according to Obs. 11, and by consulting the kindred forms 
of the word in the way which we have just stated. 

9. Muta cum liquida (§ 4) in general does not make a position ; 
hence the penultima in citskvoq, Si^paxju-og, yEviOXri, Sv(nroTiuog, 
&c. is short. Only poets sometimes also use these syllables as 



PROSODY. 17 

long, whence the common assertion that muta cum liquida 
makes a doubtful syllable. 

Obs. 5. Hence beginners ought to be extremely careful to ascertain whether the 
vowel in such a word be not possibly long by natux'e, for in that case it remains 
long of course, as, for instance, in TrsvraOXog, which comes from dOXog, (a contrac- 
tion of dsOXog,) and consequently as a long a. It is the same with tpvxpbg, the v of 
which is long, because it comes from i|/y%a> (see Obs. 8). Learners are very apt to 
fancy that muta cum liquida has the power of rendering the syllable doubtful. 

10. The medice, medials, (jS, y, ^,) when before the three liquids 
\, fx, V, form, however, an exception to the preceding rule, and 
make a true position. The penultiraa in the following words, 
for instance, is long, (only the vowel must not be lengthened 
in pronunciation,) iriTrXsyjuai, T£rpaj3ij3Xoc, evodfiog: but in the 
following, it is short, ^(^apadpa^ MeXiaypog, jjioXoftpoQ. 

11. All syllables, the quantity of which is not determined by 
the preceding rules, which can be the case only with syllables 
with the vowels a, i, v, without a position, are regulated merely 
by usage ; and as this is most safely ascertained in the works of 
the poets, and confirmed by passages of the same, this is called 
determining the quantity ea? auctoritate, and in doubtful cases 
the authority of the Attic poets is decisive. The quantity of 
the radical syllable of words must be learned from dictionaries 
and private observation; we shall only notice the most im- 
portant, and the quantity of syllables used in the formation 
and inflection of words will be noticed in the Grammar in their 
proper place. 

Obs. 6. But with regard to the formation and inflection of syllables, we shall in 
general (under the supposition of Text 4) state only those in which the doubtful 
vowels are long. Every syllable, therefore, of which nothing is observed, and the 
contrary of which is not apparent from the general rules, is to be presumed short ; 
ex. gr. the penultima in irpdyfiarog, kTvxpdjjirjv, and in the terminations employed in 
the formation of words, as ^vXivog, diKatoavvr], &c. We thus have only to notice 
radical syllables, and a few derivatives, which are not easily comprised in the rules 
of grammar. 

Obs. 7- It is chiefly only the penultima, in words of three or more syllables, which 
is rendered sensible in modern pronunciation ; and yet it is of great importance to 
be accustomed to pronounce such words correctly before the reading of poets is 
attempted. We therefore give the principle of such only, in which the penultima 
is long : — 

(pXvapog, 6, futile talk. Ko/3a\og, rogue. 

dviapbg, sad. uKparog, pure, unmixed. 

Tidpa, tiara. iargog, physician. 

orraSbg, attendant. oivam, mustard. 

av9ddr]g, proud. aiayuiv, rj, jaio. 

with the words in ayog, derived from dyoj and dyvvm, as Xoxaybg, captain; 
vuvaybg, one who has been shipicrecked. 



18 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



KafiivoQ, ri, stove. 
XaXivbg, 6, rein. 
(TsXivov, parsley. 
Kvfiivov, cumin. 
avKajxivov, mulberry. 
KVKXdfiivov, a plant. 
dujTivrj, gift. 
d^ivt], axe. 
Kivdvpog, 6, danger. 
PSOvvog, 6, cavity. 
evOvvT}, scrutiny. 
l^Oinog, strong. 
ala')(vvri, disgrace. 
Kknv^ov, husk. 
dffvXoVf asylum. 
XdipvpoVf spoil, booty. 
TTiTvpov, bran. 
dyKvpa, anchor. 
7rpt(rf3vTt}g, old man. 



ipifxvOog, 6, white lead. 

KsXvcpog, TO, husk. 

prjrivrj, rosin. 

ofxiXog, 6, multitude. 

(TTp6(3iXog, 6, cone of a pine-tree. 

TrkdiXov, shoe. 

XiXidihr, 6, swallow. 

'ipiOog, one who labours for hire. 

dicpij3r)g, exact. 

ciKovLTov, aconite, wolfh-bane. 

Tapixog, TO, dried or salt fish. 

TTUTTvpog, rj, papyrus. 

kviTTtj, threat. 

dvTTi, cry. 

dfxvva, defence. 

diivfioiv, blameless. 

yscpvpa, bridge. 

oXvpa, spelt. 

KoXXvpa, small loaf of bread. 



and also iaxvpog, strong, (from iaxvio, to be powerful^ but in kx^pbg and ox^pog, 
fortified, fast, (from £%w, to ham, hold,) and in the other adjectives in vpbg, the v is 
short. It is likewise safer to pronounce 

fivpLKt], the shrub tamarisk. Kopvvr], club. 

TrXrififivptg, flood, tide. Topvvr}, ladle, skimmer [trowel']. 

long, though they also occur short. The following proper names are long ; 
"ErvfxcpaXog, ^dpcraXog, UpiaTTog, "ApaTog, Arjfxdparog, 'AxciTijg, 
Af.vKarrig, 'Evcppdrrjg, Nj0ar>jg, Qeavu), 'idotav, " A}iacig, 
"^dpamg {Serapis^). 
BvpiTTog, 'Evnrfvg, 'Skpi^og, rpdviKog, Kd'iKog, "Offipig, Bovcripig, ^oivLkt], 

'Ayxi(7>/g, A'iyiva, Kafxdpiva, 'AtppodiTr], 'Aju^trptrj;, 
Ai6vv(Tog, ' Afxippvabg, Kafx^vatjg, 'Apx^rag, KoJKVTbg, Brjpvrbg, 
'Afivdog, BiOvvbg, Tldxwov, KkpKvpa {Gorcyra). 
See in the Appendix to the third declension a list of words of that declension, 
which have the penultima long in the gen. (and in the rest of their eases.) 

06s. 8. But those words must also he treasured in the memory, the first syllable 
of which frequently becomes long through interchange and composition. The 
following ought to be particularly remembered on that account : — 



^iXbg, bald. 

^tXof, 6, food, 

Xijxbg, 6, hunger. 

pivbg, t], skin. 

Xirbg, small. 

Ovfibg, 6, mind. 

pvfibg, b,pole of a carriage. 

X^iJ-bg, 6, juice, sap. 

X^Xbg, b, juice. 

Tvpbg, 6, cheese. 

TTvpbg, 6 ^, 



rijuj), honour. 
v'lKTfi, victory. 
kXivt], bed, couch. 
SivT}, whirlpool. 
%vvbg, common, mutual. 
Kv<pbg, crooked, bent. 
^vxv> soul. 
(pvXtj, tribe, troop. 
vXt], forest, materials. 
XvTTr}, grief. 
•Kvyri, buttocks. 



2 There is likewise some assistance to be derived from the Ionic dialect for the 
quantity of the a, as that dialect frequently changes a into tf, ex. gr. ^SrviKptjXog, 
Upirj-JTog. 

3 But nvpbg, the gen. of Trvp, ro, fi^re. 



PROSODY. 19 

XPV'^oQ, 6, gold. (pgdnap, member of the same tribe, 

drr], harm, ruin. (Tcppayig, r), seal. 

daXbg, b, firebrand. rpaxvg, rough, 

fiiKpog, little, small in stature. Xifir], infamy, /xvptj, pretext. 

In the verbs which end simply with an w annexed to the radical word, the t and v 
are constantly long, {ex. gr. rpt/3a>, avpcj, tpvx(ti,) excepting yXj;0w, to carve, engrave. 
But the a {ex. gr. in dyco, ypd<piu) is short. See the quantity of the final syllable 
of the Present Tense of the Verbs in dvu), iVw, ?;yw, § 112. Obs. Of the verbs Hable 
to contraction, we particularly notice, as having the first syllable long, 
Kivkb), to set in motion. ^Kpdoj, to dive, search. 

piysoj, to shudder. avXdu), to plunder. 

piyou), to shiver. ^vcdoj, to blow, breathe. 

(Tiydo), to be silent. 
The knowledge of these words is useful not only for usual compounds, as driixog, 
dxl/vxog, {irpijSov,) SiarpijScjj, ijx^piQriQ, davXov, &c., but also for many proper 
names, as Hermotimus, Demonicus, Eriphyle, &c. 

Obs. 9. The Nouns Substantive and Adjective derived from verbs, and retaining 

their characteristic, may be assumed to be of the same quantity with these verbs, 

until the contrary be pei'fectly ascertained ; for some of these nouns have not the 

long vowel of the Present Tense, but the short one of the Aor. 2. This is the case : 

a. with some substantives in j}, rpT/3>), diarpX(3)j, dva\pvx^} TrapaT^Jvxh- But 

ypvxn {soul). 
h. with some adjectives in tIjq, gen. sog, svicpivT^g, drpXprjg, 7ra\ivTpt(3tjg, &c., 
and the substantive 7raidoTpi(3r]g. 
Obs. 10. The rule that a vowel before another vowel is short, which is unsafe in 
Latin, is still less to be depended on in Greek. A long vowel before a vowel is, 
however, more rare than before a simple consonant, and especially the many nouns 
in log, lev, and la, are always short, except 

log, arroiD, KaXid, nest, aUia, indignity, dvia, sorrow, Kovia, dust, ^AKadrjixia ; 
and the two last occur also as short in the Epic poets. Vowel before vowel was pro- 
bably in many cases doubtful even in the common language, and poets, and more 
particulai'ly the Epics, enjoyed a great latitude in this respect *. Hence, as we learn 
the quantity of syllables fi'om poets only, we are left in uncertainty in many 
instances, especially respecting the final syllable of the Present Tense of the verbs 
in v(x) and iw, most of which we are forced to leave to individual observation. Many 
of those which have a long vowel in the Future, are also constantly used as long in 
the Present Tense in the Senarius, viz., daicpvo), [jltjvvio, iaxv(*), dXvui, ^vo), 9vw, (pvcj, 
Xvb), vu), Trpib), xpi'w. But several of them are fluctuating in other species of poetry. 
The a deserves to be remembered as long, particularly in 

Xabg, b, nation. vabg, b, temple, 

Kdu), (for Kaioj,) to burn. kXom), (for /cXaiw,) to weep. 

Long are also the penultima in 'Ej/yw, Bellona, and all those words in lojv and dcjv, 
which take an o in the gen. ; consequently all comparatives, {ex. gr. jStXriiov,) and 
many proper names, ex.gr. 'AfxcpLojv, 'YTrepiojv, Maxdojv, 'A^v9du)v, gen. ovog : but 
the t is short in AsvkoXiijjv, ^opix'Kov, gen. wvog. That proper names compounded 
with Xabg are long is a matter of course ; but remember that 

'AfJKpidpaog is long, Oivoixaog short. 
See about the particular cases in which long vowels are employed as short in verses, 
Text 16, and Obs. 16. 

* They might lengthen the i for the sake of the metre, even in 'AaKXijiriov, 
'iXiov, c'tTinir], &c. See Obs, 14. 

c 2 



20 A GREEK GRAMMATl. 

12. We have hitherto treated of the general rules of Prosody, 
as regards the language and the quantity of syllables, con- 
sidered in a grammatical point of view. We must now add 
a few words respecting that part of Prosody which we shall 
denominate 

Poetical usage, 

and which constitutes a part of the metrical science. It must 
be remembered as a general rule, that poets were bound to the 
fixed and usual quantity of syllables as contained in common 
language. Yet the various kinds of poetry and verses have a 
vast influence on Greek prosody, the laws of which differ con- 
siderably in the Hexameter of the Ionic epic poem and the 
Iambic Trimeter, or Senarius, the principal verse of the Attic 
drama, to which the Iambic and Trochaic verses of this kind of 
poetry conform. 

Ohs. 11. Attic poets indulged in but few poetical licences, and conformed them- 
selves in the main to the actual pronunciation of the people of Athens ; whilst the 
Hexameter, grounded on the ancient pronunciation of the lonians, allowed great 
freedom to the poet in particular instances. The other species of poetry lay between 
these two ; hence the parts of the drama itself, wherein an increasing emotion for- 
sakes the common language, and above all the Lyric passages and choruses, admitted 
more or less the freedom of Epic poetry along with its forms. Even the Senarius 
of tragedy differed in this respect from the Senarius of comedy, the language of 
which came nearer to that of common life. Compare § I. 10, 11. 

Ohs. 12. It is another peculiarity of the Hexameter, that it also varies with respect 
to quantity by nature (Text 6, 7)- The words 

KaXoQ, beautiful, 'iaog, equal, 
constantly short with the Attic poets, are long with the Epics, who therefore write 
ItroQ 5. There are several other words, the quantity of which is fluctuating with the 
Epics, especially 

dvT^p, man, "Aprjg, Mars, 
of which the first syllable else generally is short. In the exclamation 'A ptf/'Apc^j 
which frequently occurs in Homer, the two words, though placed together, differ in 
quantity. 

Obs. 13. The difference is particularly sensible with regard to position. The 
meeting of muta cum liquida was rather harsh in the softer Ionic dialect ; hence it 
generally makes a true position in the Epic poets, and especially in the ancient ones. 
But with the Attics the instances of short syllables stated above, (Text 9, 10,) are 
always observed as short in the Senarius of comedy, whilst Tragic poets frequently 
conform to the Epic usage. 

13. In many cases the mere rhythmus has occasioned, in 
poetical writings, deviations from the usual quantity of syllables. 

5 Observe also, that dpd. Epic dp^, imprecation, is short with the Attic poets, and 
long with the Epics ; whilst dprj, misery to be deprecated, is likewise short with the 
latter. 



POETICAL USAGE. 21 

These are what are properly called poetical licences, having been 
made by the exigency of the verse, and are not based upon the 
nature of the language. The quantity, therefore, of a syllable, 
altered in such an arbitrary manner, is not hereby changed in 
reality. 

Ohs. 14. But the licence of the old Epic poets must not be supposed to have been 
unbounded ; this would have destroyed the charm of their masterly compositions. 
Their own feelings confined them within proper bounds, so that it was only with 
i-egard to certain words and forms, or to particular cases, that they indulged in this 
freedom. They resorted to it especially, 

1.) in proper names: 'ATroWiovoq, with a long a ; ''EXtvaividao, with the first i 

short {Hymn. Cer. 105, of. 95). 
2.) in words with over-many short syllables, as in cLTCovhoQai, ctOdvaTog, the 
first syllable of which was made long ; hence this rhythmus of dOdvarog was 
afterwards steadily adopted by all poets. 
3.) in the beginning of an hexameter: Homer has even 'E-rrei | dtj — and ^iXe 
Ka- I ciyvrj- \ re-. 

14. Lastly, the following general rules are to be observed in 
poetry, principally in Homer. Position has its effects in two 
words following close one on the other. This is without ex- 
ception whenever the two consonants are divided between the 
two words, as ^ikov rl/coc. But when the second word begins 
with the two consonants, the position is indeed justifiable, ex.gr. 
Homer,"Ev0a | a^iv Kara — jXaipe | Jav' — Il.Z'73,avT£ \ T^iosg, 
yet of rare occurrence, unless the Ictus comes to its assistance. 
See Obs. 16. In the Attics it is more particularly attended to ; 
but in this case muta cum liqidda commonly makes no position, 
ex. gr. Eur. Iph. Taur. 1317, Dwc ^^V; '^f- ttv^v- \ fia. 

15. Whenever the last syllable of a word in the dactylic 

Hexameter falls in the Arsis, (the masculine caesura,) this last 

syllable is often lengthened by the mere power of the ictus. 

This is what is called the productio in the Ccesura, ex. gr., 11. e, 

359, (piXs Ka- I diyvy] — | re KO/xi — | crai . a, 51^ p>i \ Xog 

£X£ — I TTi^vKeg I — I (pidg. 

Ohs. 15. This lengthening (productio), however, does not frequently occur in so 
glaring a manner, as in the quoted examples, except 

1.) when the following word begins with two consonants, which position, ac- 
cording to text 14, causes generally no long syllable, unless it be supported 
by the ictus. 

2.) When the following word begins with a Uquida, which may easily be 
doubled in pronunciation ; ex. gr. II. 6. 748, "Hpj; | ^l jxd- \ crriyt — , d. 274, 
CLfja I Ce vscpog \ s'lTrero — \)roTionnce demmastige — denneplios. The p in particu- 
lar is so easily doubled in pronunciation in this case, that even the Attic poets 
commonly employ a short vowel as long before the p in both Thesis and Arsis, 
{ex.gr. in the Arsis of the Senarius, — tov \ Trpoaw | irov rd | paKT], Aristoph. 



22 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Plut. 10G5, and in the Thesis of a spondseus among anapaests, avrai \ dl pi- \ 
rag ^x'ov- | (jiv, Nub. 343,) and even avoid the p, wherever a short syllable 
is required. 
3.) When the following word was sounded with the Digamma, the breathing 
of which also was easily strengthened. Hence verses in Homer end so fre- 
quently with the pron. possessive og fi'om t in this manner: Ovyark \ pa rjVf 
— TToae- I "i (^. 

16. It is a general rule with dactylic and anapagstic verses, 
especially in hexameters, that the long final vowel or diphthong 
is made short before a following vowel : ex.gr, bttXev a- \ pitrrog, 
— iaatTai | aXyog, — cro- \ (pwHpYi \ aXXwv, But whenever this 
occurs in the Arsis, the syllable retains its quantity; out of it 
very rarely, excepting cases of the Digamma, as has been ob- 
served, § 6, Obs. 3. The Attic senarius, on the contrary, did 
not admit this shortening of long syllables : the case did not 
occur as a hiatus. 

Obs. 16. There are likewise instances of a long vowel or diphthong being short- 
ened before a vowel in the middle of the word, but only in certain words and forms, 
which must have had something conducive to it in their pronunciation ; as in ttouIv, 
(which is frequently w'ritten ttohv,) TroXog, and its corx*elatives and others. Such a 
vowel or diphthong is constantly shortened before the demonstrativum, (§ 80,) ex. gr. 
in TovTovi, avTifi, avrau, Sec, and in the Epic Itt^ij) for tTreiSr]. 

§ S.— Of the Accents. 

1. Independently of the quantity of syllables, (the province 
of Prosody,) the Greek language also marks the tone or what 
is called the accents ; this expression however, according to our 
habits and conceptions, still offers many difficulties. The Greek 
accent falling as frequently on a short syllable as on a long one, 
must necessarily impair the quantity, when expressed in our 
habitual way : as, ri^rj/it, ^ujKparYig. 

2. But this accentuation is proved to be as old as the lan- 
guage itself ' by clear historical facts, and unquestionable tes- 
timonies of the ancients. Attentive grammarians began to note 
it, when a false intonation was more and more invading the 
language of common life ; and it was undoubtedly at a far later 
period that these signs, which were now taught in the Greek 
schools, were generally used. They thus transmitted to us, at 
least, the theory of Greek accentuation. 

3. Reflection and practice have already enabled us to remove ■ 

^ That is to say, on the whole ; for in individual practice, accentuation, like any 
other part of the language, was exposed to fluctuations. The adopted accentuation 
is chiefly that of the flourishing Attic period. 



I 



ACCENTS. 23 

in part the contradiction which appeared to prevail between 
quantity and accent ; and it is worthy of the exertions of the 
learned to endeavour to restore this essential ingredient of the 
melody of the Greek language ; but this cannot be effected 
without an intimate acquaintance with the present system of 
Greek accentuation. 

4. But^ independently of these considerations, the Greek 
accents are not without great practical utility. They frequently 
enable us by their position to ascertain the quantity of sylla- 
bles ; serve to distinguish many homonymous words and forms 
of speech ; and even where they are of no immediate import, 
familiarise us to the laws of accentuation, without which we 
could be no judges of the instances where they are of practical 
service. 

Obs. Nothing can be more prejudicial than the habit of applying the accents in 
readmg in a way which perverts the actual quantity of syllables (see the 06s. to 
the following §). If learners cannot remedy this fault by study, and attend to both 
quantity and accents, they ought to attach themselves principally to quantity, which 
is of still higher importance in reading. 

§ 9. — Acutus and Circumflex. 

1. Every Greek word, generally speaking, has an accent on 
one of its vowels, and this accent is of two kinds : Acutus and 
Circumflex. The acute o^ala {sc. Trpoa^y^ia) accent, that is to say, 
the sharp or clear tone, has the mark or sign J. 

2. The circumflex^ TrepiaTrwiuivTi, that is to say, the lengthened 
tone, which is marked thus ^, requires a syllable long by nature. 

Obs. 1. The theory of the ancients respecting any sound, which, in our way of 
speaking, has not the accent, gives to it the grave or falling tone, (Saptia, (Lat. 
gravis,) and grammarians had for it a mark \ which, however, is not used in common 
writing, and must be distinguished from the gravis, of which we shall speak in § 13. 
According to the same theory, a long vowel, which has the circumflex, is to be con- 
sidered as two combined short vowels, of which the first has the acute, and the other 
the grave accent : thus 6b, for instance, gives w. But when the first vowel has the 
grave, and the other the acute accent, thus bo, and they are converted into (o, this 
long vowel then takes only the acute accent w. 

Obs. 2. The audible utterance of this difference in pronunciation has some diffi- 
culties. We barely warn against the two principal faults. Every accented long 
vowel (w or dj) must be carefully distinguished from the unaccented one, (grave w,) 
for instance, in avSpojitog, without, however, making it short (o) ^. But the oppo- 
site fault of lengthening accented short vowels must equally be guarded against : 
oTTfp, for instance, must not be pronounced like W7r«j0 ^. 

2 The first syllable of avOpio-rroQ may be accented, and yet the second syllable 
lengthened, as is done with Ahuljhty. 

3 The attempt to give the tone to a short vowel has the same effect with us as 



24 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



10. 



1. The acute accent and the circumflex can fall only on one 
of the three last syllables ; the acute accent, indeed, may fall on 
any of the three, but the circumflex can take place only on the 
last syllable, or on the penultimate. 

The second Obs. of § 14 shows that ioTivi and such words 
constitute but a seeming exception. 

2. It is the nature of the last syllable in particular, which 
gives to the whole word its grammatical denomination with 
regard to the accent. According as this last syllable has 1. the 
acute accent, 2. the circumflex, or 3. no accent, (viz., according 
to § 8. 2. when it has the grave accent,)' the word is called 

Oxytonon, as for instance, 0£oc, oc? r£ru«^wc» 

Perispomenon .... ^tXw, vovg. 

Baryfonon tutttw, Trpajjua, Trpayfiara. 

3. Again, any dissyllabic or polysyllabic barytonon, according 
as it has 1. the acute accent on the penultimate syllable, or 2. on 
the antepenultimate, or 3. the circumflex on the penultimate, is 
called 

Parcxytonon .... ruTrrw, rErvjiiiuievoQ, 
Proparoxytonon . . . ruTrro^evoc? avOpcjirog. 
Properispomenon . . . Kpayfjia, ^tXovcra. 
See about the seeming barytona, as 6joy?7, T^TVi^wg^ etc., and 
about the atona or unaccented words, § 13. 



§11. 

The place of the accent in words is best learned through 
attention and practice, and at first from the Dictionary. The 
following general rules may, however, be attended to : 

doubling the following consonant, which creates a great difficulty, since it must 
obviously be supposed that the ancients distinguished otl from otti, and jSaXs from 
jSaXXf. But in the first place this alteration of the sound is neither so frequent 
nor so offensive as when bvoQ, j3g\oc,for instance, are pronounced mvoq, (SrjXog ; and, 
in the second place, persevering application may certainly succeed at least in lessen- 
ing the difficulty. To pronounce Sw/cparj/f, compare this word with three similar 
German monosyllables, so hat er, * so has he,' the middle one of which is short, and 
may yet be accented. These words obviously differ from so that er, ' so did he,' and 
are nearly like so hdtt' er, ' so had he.' To pronounce aocpla without lengthening the i 
appears moi'e difficult; but not only the German wie, ' how,^ but even the French 
j^, ' fie ! ' may be accented ; it merely requires some little practice to pronounce a 
short accented syllable immediately befoi'e another vowel. 



I 



ACCENTS. 25 

The circumflex requires a syllable long by nature, (viz. 
by its vowel and not by mere position :) (§ 7, 8.) ex. gr, 

KTi^OQ, (pbjg, teXxoq, ovTog, (TjULrjjfia, 
and 

Tifxar^, rjfuVf irvp, 
because the uncertain vowels, (§ 7. 6.) a, i, v, are long in these 
words. Hence a short vowel, when accented, can only take the 
acute accent : as erepogi jLiivog, 'Ivaj Trpog, ttoXv, TrXiyiaa. 

Obs. 1. ^fjiriyna has the circumflex only on account of the rj, nc%because of the 
position yfx. And as, for instance, 7rpay/xa, [xaWov, have the circumflex, it shows 
that a is here long by itself, not on account of y/x and \\ : pronounce praghma, 
mahllon. 

3. But the acute accent may also stand on a long vowel : as 
(jo^b}Tspog^ CEvrepogf ^evyu), Ti/irji [dacnXevg, (j)U)p* 

3. Whenever the last syllable, being naturally long, is to 
have the accent, it may be the circumflex ; and in case of a 
CONTRACTION, as in aX-qOiog, aXr]9ovg, TTotEw, TToew, it almost 
always is the circumflex, for the reasons stated below, § 28 Obs.^ 
but else it is not often the case. Several monosyllabic 
V70IIDS, as TrDp, jdovg, irag, ovv, vvv, have the circumflex. But 
in polysyllabic words, excepting the contraction, whenever the 
final syllable is accented, the circumflex is placed only on 

a.) the adverbial termination wg. See § 115. 

b.) the terminations of the gen. and dat. See § 337. 

c.) the terminations eu and ot of the vocat. See § 45. 

4. If the penultimate syllable, being naturally long, is to be 
accented, it must be the circumflex, whenever the last syllable 
is short, or long only by position ; as 

/ofijua, oTvocj ^i'Xocj jSwXa^j gen. aKog. 

Obs. 2. This rule does not apply to words joined together with enclitics ; 
hence we write dre, ovrs, iixrwep, ijrig, rovaSe, &c. (See § 14. Obs. 2.) The par- 
ticles eWe and vaixi, (not vaixh) which are but ti and vai lengthened, are the only 
exceptions. 

5. But whenever the last syllable is naturally long, the 
penultimate cannot take the circumflex ; we write 

|o/]rwp, o'/vrj, ^ux^, Owpa^, gen. tifcoc* 

6. According to § 10. 1, the antepenultimate can take only 
the acute accent. But when the last syllable is long, whether 
it be by nature or position, the antepenultimate cannot be ac- 
cented at all ; we write 

^(jjKparrig^ rrvXXeyWf epi(5<jjXaE,. 



26 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

7. The final syllables m and oi, though long, have only the 
influence of a short syllable, with regard to the two immediately 
preceding rules : we write 

Tpiaivai^ irpofpriTai, ttcoXol, avOptviroi, plurals of 
rpiaiva, TTpo^/jr^JC? ttwXoc? avOpwirog* 

TvirTO/iai, TVTTTeTai, TvirTScrOai, Hrvxpah 
passive forms of the verb. 

noirjaat, (rrrjo-ai, Otlvai, infinitives. 

iroinaai, (rrifiaaL, imperatives of the middle. 

Obs. 3. We except, however, 

1.) The third person of the opt. in oi and ai : as ^evyoi, Troifjffai. 
2.) The adv. oikoi, at home (but the pi. oijcoi, houses). 

3.) Words joined together (§ 14.) with enclitics; as o'ifxoi, woe is me,- -^toi, 
both when it comes from ^, certainly^ and from ^, or. 

8. Even the w in the terminations of the cases in the Attic 
declension takes the accent on the antepenultimate syllable, 
as woXeojg, iroXewv, (§ 51,) and (nom. and accus. sing, and 
gen. pi.) dvojyEojv. (§ 37.) 

Obs. 4. Likewise the w in the Ionic gen. in ew of the first declension : as 
dtaTTOTeu) for SeoTroTov, § 34. Obs. 

Obs. 5. It is obvious that a beginner, who uses correct editions, may learn the 
quantity of niany words by their accents : — 

1.) The circumflex shows that the syllable on which it stands is long. 

2.) The acute accent on such words as KapKivog, fSdOpov, &c., shows that the 

penultimate syllable is short. (This follows from No. 4. of the Text.) 
3.) The accent of such words as TreXpa, dpovpa, shows that the last syllable is 

short. (Text 4. 6.) and 
4.) The acute accent on x^P<^^ Af]da, shows that the last syllable is long 
(Text 4, 5). 
Even words and forms, the accent of which indicates nothing, may yet serve to 
remind those, who have read much with attention, of forms whose accent is de- 
cisive. They will pronounce dairog long, and OeocpiXog short, because (tItoq has the 
circumflex, and (piXoQ the acute accent. Thus will the i in diKt}, adiKog, be known 
to be short, because the pi. SUai appears so frequently, that the attentive reader 
may recollect that he never saw it with the circumflex (Text 7). But the circum- 
flex of monosyllables decides nothing with regard to the quantity of their lengthened 
case?, the monosyllabic nominatives of the third declension being always long (§ 41. 
06s. 3. and § 42. Obs. 3) ; for instance, Trvp, fivg^ gen. Trvpbg, fivog. 

§13. 

When a word is changed by its declension or conjugation, or 
in any other way, this change influences its accentuation in 
many cases : 

1.) It has a necessary influence, when the word undergoes 
such a change as to prevent the accent being continued the 



ACCENTS. 27 

same as it is on the principal form of the word, conformably to 
the rules stated above ; in that case 

The circumflex is converted into the acute accent, as olvogs 
gen. oivov, (§ 11. 5.) prjfxa, gen, pr]fiaTog (§ 10. 1). 

The acute into the circumflex ; as tijiti, gen, Tijurigi (§ H* ^' ^•) 
^Euyoj, imper, (pevye (§ 11. 4). 

Or the accent passes from the antepenultimate to the penul- 
timate syllable; as avBpcoirog, gen, avOpwirov, apovpa, gen, 
apovpag (§ 11. 6). 

2.) But even when it is not necessary in conformity with the 
above rules, the accent, though never changed, is yet sometimes 
transposed : 

a.) The accent is removed backwards chiefly, 1.) when the 
word has before it an augment of any kind, as tvtttij), tvttts — 
ervirre, odbg — cruvoSocs iraidevTog — cnruLdevTog : 2.) when the 
reason which attached the accent in the principal form to the 
penultimate syllable, (§ 11. 6,) disappears; as iraidevii), imper, 
Trat^EUE. More precise information and exceptions will be stated 
in the Obs. sub 1. to § 103, and in the Theory of Compounds, 
§121. 

b.) The accent is only moved forward chiefly when the word 
receives one of the terminations, which either always are ac- 
cented, as the partic. perf, in tog : rirvcpa, partic. rervipwg ^, or 
which take the accent under peculiar circumstances, as Orjp, 
Oripog, according to § 43. Obs. 4. 

Obs. With regard to the transposition of the accent, see in the anastrophe, 
§ 117. 2 ; with the apostrophus, § 30. 06s. 1. and on casting off the augment, 
Obs. ]. 2. to§ 103. 

§ 13. Gravis, Atona. 

1. Hitherto we have considered the accent merely as it is 
regulated in itself by every word and form; but it is also 
influenced by the connexion of words, but in a grammatical 
respect only in two principal cases. It is modified through the 
dependence of a word on the following or preceding parts of 
speech; which is expressed as, I. Inclination of the Accent 
towards the following word; 1.) by moderating the acute 
accent ; 2.) by casting the accent off. II. Inclination towards 

* To these must be added some common terminations in the formation of words ; 
as, for uistance, the verbal substantives in jwog, (Xoyio-jwoc;,) the adjectives in koq, 
vbg, TOQ, Tsog, and some others. 



28 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

the preceding word or Inclinatio. We treat (1.) of the In- 
cHnation towards the following word. 

2. Whenever an oxytonon (§ 10. 2.) stands before other 
words in connexion, the effect of the acute accent is moderated, 
and approximates more or less to the grave accent. In that 
case the sign or mark of the acute is converted into the sign 
of the grave accent \ which is used only on such occasions 
(§ 9. 2). But at the end of a period, viz., before a full stop or 
colon ', the acute accent remains unchanged ; as, 

'Opy?) ^£ TToXXa ^pav avajKaZ^H /ca/ca. 

Ohs. 1. According to the theory, (contained in § 9. Ohs. 1.) all unaccented 
syllables (graves) ought to have this sign (gravis), but instead of having it, the 
same sign was chosen for those accented final syllables, the accent or tone of which 
was to be softened down, in order to connect the final syllable of a word more easily 
together with the succeeding one. We must guard against considering as barytona 
words which end with \ They are rather called oxytona, because their acute 
accent is merely at rest, and grammar, in looking at connected words, considers 
each word separately. 

Obs. 2. The interrogative pronoun, rig, ri, (§ 77-) is the only exception to this 
rule. With regard to the acute accent on terminations before enclitics, see § 14. 

3. The following monosyllabic words, which all begin with a 
vowel, 

ov, {ovK, ov\,) not, wg, as, ci, if. 
£v, in, eiQy (fcO i'^^o, c^, (tjc,) out, 
and these nominatives of the articulus prapositivus, (§ 75.) 

6, 17, Of, aU 
appear commonly unaccented in speech, because they coalesce 
with the subsequent word, and are on that account called atona, 
unaccented words, ex, gr, 

6 vovg' fiXOev £^ 'Acrm^' bjg Iv irapo^Ci)' ov yap irapriv. 

4. But as soon as such words are unconnected with the 
subsequent one, standing either alone or at the end or after 
the words which they govern, tkey obtain their accent ; ex, gr. 
ou, no, TTwc yap ov ; why not? Oebg wg kriero, {as a god,) ovSh 
KaKtjjv e^ (instead of bk kojcwv). 

Obs. 3. As these words stand with regard to the accent nearly in the same pre- 
dicament to the subsequent word as enclitics to the preceding word, they are now 
frequently called proclitics after Ilennann. See Biittmann's Complete Greek Gram- 
mar, § 13. 5 

§ 14. Enclitics. 
1. A number of monosyllabic and dissyllabic words, owing 

5 It is owing to the old principle being misunderstood that most moderns place 
the acute accent before every comma. 



ACCENTS. 29 

to their signification and pronunciation, may be so closely 
joined with the preceding word, as to throw the accent on that 
word. And as these words in that case lean or incline, as it 
were, (iyjcX/yecr^af,) on the preceding word, they are called 
Enclitics ; whilst every word which is accented by itself, and 
every enclitic, when it retains its accent, is called Orthotonon 
{opOoTovovju^vov, a word, as it were, with upright accent). 

2. Such enclitics are : — 

1.) the indefinite Pronoun rtc? t\^ through all its cases, 
with rov, Tw, as belonging to it, (in contradistinction 
from the interrogative pronoun rig, ti, ^ who ?' * what ?' 
which always retains the acutus, § 77.) 

2.) The following oblique cases of the personal Pronouns : — 
juou, luLol, jUE, GOV, <7oi, (7£, ou, oT, €, julv, vtv, aud thosc 
beginning with o-0 with some exceptions. (§ 72. Obs.) 

3.) The Indicative Present of h/m and (p-nfxi, excepting the 
monosyllabic second pers. sing. (§ 108. IV. § 109. I.) 

4.) The indefinite adverbs ttwq, irrj, ttoI, ttou, 7to9\, TroOhv, 
TTore, which differ from the similar interrogatives 
(ttwc ; TTore, &c.) merely by their enclitical accents, 
(§116.) 

5.) The particles ttw, rt, to\, 6i)v, ye^ kev or kI, vvv or vv ^, 
TT^p, pa, with the inseparable Se. — (See Obs. 2.) 

3. When the word before the enclitic (compare below, 7) 
is a proparoxytonon, {avOptoTvog,) or a properispomenon, {crwima,) 
the enclitic throws its accent, which always is the acute accent, 
on the final syllable of that word, as, 

avOpwTTOQ eari, oCofxa fiov, 
and when it is preceded by an unaccented word, as for instance 
fl, it throws its accent on this word : a rig. 

4. But if the preceding word has already of itself an accent 
on its final syllable, or the acute accent on the penultimate, the 
same accent likewise serves for the enclitic, and the acute 
accent of such a final syllable does not in that case dwindle 
into the grave accent ; § 13. 2. ex. gr. 

avrjp Tig' Kai aoi' 

0tXw (T£* yvvaiKiov tivojv' av^pa re' Xiyeig ri. 

5. When one enclitic follows immediately after another encli- 
tic, the first generally takes the accent of the following enclitic, 

* This particle {igitur) contradistinguishes itself by this accent from the adverb 
of time vvv {nunc, *now '), 



30 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

and throws its own accent on the preceding word, and so on, 
if there be several enchtics up to the last, which alone remains 
unaccented ; as for instance, el rig riva <lnt]Gi fxoi wapelvau 

6. Enclitics retain their own accent : (become orthotona. See 
L) whenever the inclination is obstructed : viz., 

1.) when a Paroxytonon has a dissyllabic enclitic after it; 

ex, gr, Xoyoc Trort k^wpu' evavrlog (j(j)i(TLv» 
2.) when the syllable on which the accent of the enclitic 

should be thrown, is removed by an apostrophus; as 

TToWol S' HdlV, 
Obs. 1. The beginner in the Greek language may render the rules of the incli- 
nation easier to himself by considering merely the number of syllables in the accent- 
uation of separate words, without any respect to the influence which the quantity 
of the last syllable may have upon the accent. Let him suppose the two words, 
which are to be inclined, coalesced into one (which in fact they are, except in 
writing,) ex. gr. dv9pix)7r6g ian, and he will readily perceive that a second accent is 
requii'ed upon the autepenultima 6q, the acutus upon the first syllable dv not being 
sufficient. The same with aoJ^id fiov, since the circumflex upon w is not enough, on 
account of the long syllable [xov, whilst m avrjp tiq, ^iXw as, avdpa te, one accent suf- 
fices. The manner alone in which dissyllabic words after perispom. are inclined, is 
opposed to the genei-al rule of accentuation. Modern grammarians, therefore, do 
not consider cases like the following, ywaiKuv tiviop and ujvtivojv as coming within 
the rules of inclination. — The inclination is said to be obstructed v/henever the 
tone of a preceding paroxytonon is not sufficient for the following dissyllabic 
enclitic ; as, for instance, iu \6yoQ ttotc 5 whilst to accentuate \6y6g ttots would be 
against the rule of arsis and thesis, which cannot exist when two syllables following 
each other have upon both the sharp tone or acutus. 

7. Otherwise enclitics in general become orthotona, only when 
there is a kind of emphasis, particularly when it is grounded 
on an antithesis, resting on them, and when they begin the 
sentence. But many of these words (especially those under 
2. and 5.) can from their nature never be in that predicament, 
and therefore always occur as enclitics \ 

06s. 2. As such a word through inclination coalesces almost into one with the 
preceding word, many words, commonly combined with an enclitic for a peculiar 
meaning, are also written close together : as, for instance, oxtte, ovte, fievroi, octtiq^ 
wvTivujv (see § 77)- The enclitic ds (which is very different from ds, but,) occurs 
merely in this way in ods, Tocoffds, wdE, dofiovds, &c. (§§ 76 and 79. 6". § 116. 2. and 6.) 
Such an enclitic takes the accent of a new subsequent one only when the general 
rule requires it, {o'Itivsq ilaiv, h>d'e te) but commonly it does not, ovte ri. Yet with 
regard to these matters there is no uniformity in the editions of Greek books ; espe- 
cially in cases where the first word of such a coalition should (according to the 
Text 3.) take two accents. We sometimes meet with "EpfjSocr^e, oloffrc, correctly, and 
sometimes with the second accent only, "Eps^oa^E, o\6<jte. See about riroi, § 11. Obs. 3. 

^ For details with respect to inclination and right accentuation of the ]iersonal 
pronouns, and of fiov and ijiov, &e. see § 72. Obs. 2, 3, and about eiuI, karlv, and 
ETTiv, § 108. iv. 3. 



INTERCHANGE OF LETTERS. 31 

Obs. 3. The demonstrative pronouns, which are strengthened by de (§§ 79. and 
1 16. 6.) remove, in every occurring case, their own accent on their final syllable ; 
for instance, rotrog, Tolog — Tocrocrds, rotoade' tijXikoq — rriXiKocrdf fv9a — sv9dde' 
roicTL — ToicriSe : and as this is the accent of the principal word, the genitives and 
datives, conformably to § 33. Obs., retain likewise their circumflex on the long 
vowel, as roaovde, To<Tyde, roLolade, whilst the nom, and ace. are rocrrjde, toloixtSs. 

§ 15. — Punctuation, 

1. The Greek has the full stop and comma in common with 
our modern languages. Our semi-colon is comprised in the 
Greek colon^ marked by a dot over the line (as ovk rjXOev' aWa — ) 
The Greek note of interrogation is (;). 

Obs. Modern editors have begun to introduce the note of exclamation (!). 

2. The diastole or hypodiastole ( , ) must not be confounded 
with the comma ; it serves merely to distinguish little words 
enclitically connected from other similar ones ; as, for instance, 
o, Ti, (Epic 6, TTL,) the neuter of oaTiq, and ro, re, {and this,) from 
the particles on (Epic ottl) and tote. 

3. The Greek has farther marks referring to letters and syl- 
lables, viz., 

' the apostrophus (§ 30). 

' the coronis or the sign of the crasis (§ 29). 
the diceresis (the trema of the French) over a vowel, 
which does not make a diphthong with the vowel which 
precedes; as oig, (o-is,) Trpavg (pra-us). 

See about the iota subscriptum i, {q, y, c^,) § 5. 

INTERCHANGE OF LETTERS. 
§ 16. — Consonants, 

1. The formation of words and grammatical forms is attended 
with so many changes in the letters, chiefly for the sake of 
euphony and pronunciation, that the radical word is frequently 
so altered as not to be known again. But this alteration 
generally rests on acknowledged fundamental laws. 

2. With respect to the Greek consonants, we may observe 
that letters belonging to the same organ, or which have the 
same property, (§ 4. 3.) though of different organs, are most 
apt to interchange whenever there is an alteration in the word. 

3. This is likewise the foundation of the difference of the 
dialects, as may be seen in the following Observations, 

Obs. 1. The dialects of the Greek language most frequently interchange 
a.) the asinratce ; for instance, for 0X^v, to bruise, Attice ^}<q,v. 



33 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Thus the denomination 0>)p, a centaur, is merely an antiquated form of G^p, beast, 
' a ma7i-beast ;' opvig has generally 6pvi9og in the gen., Dorice opvixoQ. 

b.) the mediae; for instance, for y\r)x(*>v, pennyroyal, Attice j8Xi7xwv, for yrj, 
ancient Doric Set, for ojSeXog, spit, Dorice 68sX6g. 

c.) the tenues ; thus the iuterrogatives, (ttov, Trwg, rroXog, oTrolog, ttCj, Sec.) in- 
stead of the usual tt, have in the Ionic dialect constantly k, {kov, Kojg, Kolog, oKoTog, 
Ku), &c.) ; thus also irort, when, is Dorice ttoku, and tt'evts, five, jEolice Trsfjiire. 

d.) the liquids ; thus, instead of ijXOov, (BsXrKTTog, (piXraTog, the Doric dialect has 
yv9ov, l3evTi(TTog, (pivraTog : the Ionic, instead of 7rvev[j,(jjv, lungs, has TrXevfxujv : 
the Attic for KXi(3avog, oven, Kpi(3avog : see about fxlv and viv, the pronouns, § 72. 
Obs. 6. 

e.) the letters of the same organ : the Attic prefers yva^svg, fuller, to Kva^svg : 
TOLTrig, tapestry, and dixTng were both used indifferently ; and the Ionic dialect 
sometimes converted the aspiratce into tenues, as SeKOfiai for ^6%ojuai, to take, avrig 
for avOig, again ; the Attic actpdpayog is lonice dcTrdpayog. 

f.) the (T especially with the other Unguals. 

with T — for ai), irXriaiov, near, TLoauhaJv, the Doric has tv, irXariov, IloTeiddv. 
„ 9 throughout in the Laconic dialect, as for 9ebg, 9t.log — aibg, atiog. 
„ V — the termination jitev is Dorice [xeg (as tvtttoijisv, rvTrronsg). 
„ p — thus many Doric tribes ended the words in ag, rjg, og, log, with ap, rip, 
op, ijjp. 

g.) the double consonants with the kindred simple ones, especially d with ?, 
as Kbp^ for 8bp^, roebuck, fjiddda Dorice for [xd^a, dough, &c. The old Greek and 
./Eolic dialect, instead of ^ and -if/, transposed the two simple consonants ; as CKSj/og, 
aTToXig, for Uvog, stranger, \paXlg, shears. The Doric dialect in particular commonly 
has, instead of ^ in the middle, od, as, avpicdcj for avpiK(ti, [xeffdwv for /xl^wv or 
fjLei^(jjv, &.C. (Compare above, § 3.) 

Obs. 2. The conversion of letters into those which are not of a kin to them is of 
rare occurrence, and must be especially remembered ; as fioyig for fxoXig, hardly, 
KoeXv, lonice for vofiv, to meditate, KtXaivbg, K^Xaivrj, poetically for fisXag 
fi'sXaiva ^, black. 

Obs. 3. Most of the above-mentioned interchanges are stated by ancient and 
modern grammarians in general terms, as * the Attic dialect changes 9 into 0, the 
Ionic TT into k,' and so on. But this must not lead us to suppose that such a con- 
version is constant in such a dialect. The examples quoted are very often the only 
ones in which that convei-sion occurs, and it is but in some cases that this or that 
dialect inclines to some particular change, which merely serves to bring the cases 
which may occur under their proper analogy. 

Obs. 4. Two conversions, founded on what we stated above, are, however, so 
frequent, that they deserve a particular nt)tice, viz. : 

TT and (r(7, 

pp and p<T. 

The former takes place in most of the words in which these letters occur, and the 

latter in a great many of them : tt and pp are chiefly peculiar to the Attic dialect, 

and <Tcr and per to the Ionic ; as, for instance, 

Att. Ion. Att. Ion. 

rdTTtiv — rdcfsiiv, to arrange. dpprjv — dp<jriv, male, masculine. 

yXatrra — yXuxraa, tongue. Kopptj—Kopcrij, cheek. 

But the Ionic forms are also met with in the best Attic writers, and particularly in 
the most ancient authors. (See above, § 1. Obs. 8.) 

* See about these and similar instances, Buttmann's Ledlogus, II. 109. 



ASPIRATE. 33 

§ 17. — Of the Aspirat(B. 

1. Each aspirata (§ 4.) must be considered as proceeding 
from its kindred tenuis combined with the spiritus asper. 
Hence the Latin writing oi ph, th, ch. 

2. When therefore a tenuis meets in its combination with a 
spiritus asper ^ it becomes an aspirata; as, for instance^ the 
words iirX, ^Ua, avroq, when they throw off their terminations 
to be combined with rjiuipa. make 

ifpijfispogf ^£)(f}iuLEpog, avd{]fXzpoQ, 

3. The same takes place in distinct words; as (ou/c) ov\ 
6<jL(Dg, and with the addition of the apostrophus, (§ 30.) 

airO} ttTT — a(p ov : avri, avr — avu wv. 

Obs. 1. The Ionic dialect retains the temtes in both cases : as stt' oaov, ovk wg, 
loTavai — iiiTiGTavai, KaraTrep for KaQdirsp (from Ka& uTTsp). Compare § 16. Obs. I.e. 

Obs. 2. A remarkable change of the tenuis takes place when there is another letter 
between it and the spiritus, as in TsOpnnrov, four-horse carnage, from rsrpa- and 
'iTTTToQ : it occurs also in some Attic contractions, Qoifidriov for to ifxaTiov, (see 
§ 29. Obs. 4,) (ppovSoQ from Trpo and odog ^. 

§18. 

1. There is in the Greek language a law by which one of 
two successive syllables beginning each with an aspirata, and 
generally the first, is converted into the te7iuis of the same 
organ. This takes place without exception in all reduplica- 
tions : as 

7r£0f ArjKttj Ke\(LpYiKa, rWi^fiL, instead of (pecj), x^X' ^^'^* 
But this law is observed only in a few instances of inflections 
and derivations, and the termination 6 of the imper. has this 
peculiarity, that it has no effect on the preceding syllable, but 
is itself converted into rt, as, for instance, 7Jj^0)?ri, imper, Aor, 1. 
pass. 

2. Some few words had already two aspiratae in theii' root, 
the first of which was consequently converted into a tenuis. 
Whenever the second is altered by some other law of form- 
ation, the first re-appears as an aspirata ; for instance. 

Root 0PE<I> : present Tp^(p(i), I nourish ; fut. Opixpu); deriva- 
tives Tpo(f)ri, 6ue7TTi]pLOVj Opifjijua. 
But such a law of formation may already have occurred in the 
principal form (nomin. or pres.) stated in the Lexicons, and 

2 But the form (ppoifiioi', (for Trpooifxiou,) from 7rp6 and olfxr], compared with 
6pd(j(T(o, a contraction of rapdffo-w, shows that even without a spiritus asper before 
the p, the tenues readily become aspiratte. 

D 



34 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

not ill some of the derivative forms : whence arises a seem- 
ingly opposite case (r/o£<^w, 9pi\[^w, Opl^, Tpixbg), which is, how- 
ever, essentially the same : 

Root 9PIX: no?7i. OplZ, hair; gen. rpixog, dat. pi. Opi^lv, de- 
rivative TQiypw. 
There are but a few verbs, (see in the list of Anomalous Verbs 
dairno, 0A$ — , Opvirrw, rpi^^^i Tvcpu),) and the adjective rax^g, 
on account of its comparative 6aG(T0}v, (§ 67.) which belong to 
these two cases. 

06.'. 1 . In some words the Ionic dialect changes the first aspirata, and the Attic 
the second, and vice versa; as, ■)(^iT(jt)v, Ion. kiOojv, kvrfvOev, evravOa, Ion. svOsvrev, 
evQavTa. See § 116. 

Obs. 2. The passive termination Qrjv, and what is derived from it, opei-ates only 
on the preceding 9 of the verbs 9veiv, to sacrifice, Oelvai, to place, ervOrjv, IrsOriv, 
reOeig. There is no change in any other verb ; for instance, kxvBr]v, wpOojOrjv, 
(from opOouj,) 9a(p9eiQ, WpscpBijv, W\sx9r}v. — The aor. 1. of the imper. pass, is the 
only certain instance with regard to the termination 9i of the imper. See below the 
verb Ti9i]iJ,i, § 107. Obs. 1. 5. The imper. <pa9i from ^jy/it, and i\\e Homeric r'B9va9i, 
(see 9vf](7KU),) are deviations. — All other terminations afford no examples for this 
rule ; for we find 9ka9rj, Kopiv969i, TravraxoBev, &c. 

Obs. 3. In compoimd words the rule is followed only in eKsxsipia, armistice, from 
ixii-v and %sjp, a/x7r£xa>, (see the anomalous verb e'xw,) eTracprj, d'Kt(j)9og, where the re- 
quisite aspiration, (according to § 17. 2,) the rr before the spiritus asper, {a(prj, k(p9bg,) 
is omitted. There is no change in any other compound ; e^u^aij/w, d}x(pixv9tig, 
dv9o(p6pog, 6cc. 

Obs. 4. This law extended also to the spiritus asper, which it converted into a 
lenis, as may be clearly seen in the following verb : 

Root 'EX, pi'esent £%w, I liave,fut. s'^w, deriv. UrixSg. 
But the spiritus generally remains unchanged ; as, d(prj, v(l)aivio, ijxi, Wsv. 

ACCUMULATION OF CONSONANTS. 
§19. 

1. The immediate meeting of consonants produces a kind of 
harshness, which the Greek language avoids. 

2. Three consonants, or one consonant and a double letter, 
cannot (except in compounds, as ^v(j(f)OapTog, kWrwo-tc? e/c^uxw) 
stand together, unless the first or last be a liquid, or unless 
there be a y before a palatal letter ; as, for instance, irsiiKpd^lc, 
gkXtjpoq, riy^d). In other cases Greek writers either strive to 
avoid this accumulation, or one of the consonants must give 
way ; see instances below about the perf. of the pass, voice ; 
eoc. gr. lacpaX-aOai, l(T(f)aXOai. 

3. But even the meeting of two consonants only may produce 
a harshness, and there are some fixed rules to avoid it, stated 
in the following §§. 



ACCUMULATIOX OF CONSONANTS. 35 

Obs. 1. The introduction even of a third consonant facilitates the pronunciation 
in some rarely occurring instances. When through the omission of a vowel the 
liquid fi ov V comes to stand immediately hefore the liquid X or p, the media, (/3, d,) 
which is of a kin to the first, is introduced ; as, from r)p.kpa comes jxiGr]^^pla, mid- 
day ; from fiejjisXijTai arose the Epic fiififSXerai : dvrjp has gen. avSpog. 

Obs. 2. Transposition sometimes, but equally rarely, puts a cousonant in a more 
convenient place. Thus the nominative ttj^u^ comes from the root IITKN, retained 
in the formation of the cases TrvKvbq, ttvkvI (see the Anomalous Declensions^. But 
transpositions not suggested by euphony, especially in the pronunciation of liquids, 
will sometimes occur in all idioms, some of v.hich the polished language does not 
scruple to use, as in the formation of the aor. 2., TrspOoj, lirpaQov, or for the sake of 
the metre, Kpadia for KapSia: and also tice versa; arapTTOQ for drpaTrog, ^apdiarog 
for j3pddi(TTog, &c. 

Obs. 3. The meeting of two consonants was still more frequent in the old lan- 
guage ; one of them was subsequently dropped, but poets often retained such a con- 
sonant for the sake of the metre, or to strengthen the sound of a word, as TrroXf/xog, 
TTToXig, and their compounds, instead of tto/Xs/xo^, ttSXiq. This also serves to ex- 
plain how x«M"'j ^^ ^^^ ground, and x^'^H-'^^og, low, are connected. 

Obs. 4. The <t, on the contrary, frequently creeps in before other consonants ; as, 
for instance, the Ionic- Attic (Xf-uicpbg for [xiKpbg, and thus arose the forms apXXa^, 
(TKsddb}, [xiayoj, omaQev, and many others, from the more ancient juIXal, /cs^aw, 
MirG, (whence jxiyeig, &c.) ottiOsv, &c. 



§30. 

1. Two mut(B of different organs can meet, in Greek only, 
when the second is a Hngual. Hence the steady rule : 

A ie7iuis can stand only before a tenuis^ an aspirata only 
before an aspirata, and a media before a media : 
ex, gv, ETrra^ vvktoq, a^doq^ ^^tyw, (d^eXvpo^i kpiy^ovTrog^ 

2. Hence when two heterogeneous consonants meet in the 
formation of a word, the first generally must assume the pro- 
perty of the second. For instance, the addition of the syl- 
lables Tog, SrjVj deig, makes 

of ypacptt), I write, — jpaTTTog, ypaj5^r}v, 
of ttXUio, I plait, — TrXexOeig. 

3. In case of two combined homogeneous consonants, no 
change is undergone by one alone, but always by both. Thus, 
ETTTCL, oKTw, glvc £j3So/xoc, 67^00^ ; ^ud whcu of two te7iues, the 
second, owing to the spir. asp. (§ 17. 2, 3c) is changed into an 
aspirata, the first undergoes the same change ; as, 

iTTra, r\fii(^a l^dr]p,Epog, lasting seven days. 

vvKTa vvxO' oXriv, the whole night. 

4. Only the prep. Ik remains unchanged before all con- 
sonants ; as, IkO^Xvui, eKdovvai, £Kj3aXX£iv, EKy^viaOai, iKcpevyeiv. 
See § 26. 6. 

d2 



36 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§21. 

1. The reduplication of a consonant is not so frequent in the 
Greek, as for instance in the German language ; and beside the 
semivowels X, /x, v, p, and o-, it is the r which is most frequently 
doubled. 

2. Whenever there is a simple vowel placed before the p in 
the formation or composition of a word, the beginning p of the 
word, from which it is derived, is always doubled; as, 

eppEirov, appeiri^Q, — from piira) with £ and a, 

irepLppooQ, — from TrfjOt and pits). 
See § 82, and 120. 6. But this is not the case with diphthongs ; 
as, ivp(i)(TTOQ (from w and pdivvvfn). 

3. The aspirates are never doubled, but take the kindred 
tenuis before ; as, 

Sa7r0a>5 "BaK^ogy HirOevg. 

Obs. 1. The non- Attic poets frequently double the consonant for the sake of the 
metre ; for instance, oaaov, brri, ottttots, 'ivvsTre, for cxxovj &c. ; and okxoq, 
(JKVTTcpoQ, for bxoQ, (TKvcpog. This, however, is not done arbitrarily, but frequently 
in some words, and never in others, (as, 'in, kVtpof, afxa, dveixog,) yet mostly with 
semi-vowels. (See also about these reduplications, § 27- Obs. 14.) 

Obs. 2. Sometimes, but much less frequently, they employ a simple consonant, 
where the usual language has a double one ; as, 'Axi^tvg, 'Odvasvg, (for 'AxiWevg, 
'Odvaatvg,) and hence they also neglect doubling the p, as f'pi^c from pl^w. 

§ 23. 

1 . When the letters j3, tt, 0, and -y, k, x^ stand before an a, 
they are converted along with this a into the kindred double 
letters ;// or ^ ; ea^. gr. the termination of o-w of the fut. makes of 

Tpij5(i) Tpiipu), Xhttu) Xei^d), jpcKptjj ypa-(pijj, 
Xayo) Xl^a>, irXiKUJ ttXI^w, <jTdx(*i ard^Wf 
and the termination o-f, o-tv, of the dat. pi., makes of 

"ApajS^c "Apa^i, KopaKsg Kopa^iv, 6vv)(^Eg ovv^i. 

2. But here the prep. £k is likewise excepted : for instance, 
Efco-w^Wx See § 26. 6. 

Obs. 1. It must not be supposed that the \p, when it proceeds from /3(T and 0cr, and 
the ^, when it proceeds from ya and ^o", were always pi-onounced like bs or fs, gs or 
chs. If that were the case, the double letters would have been a useless invention. 
The fact is, that before the a the letters y and x ^-re changed into k, and /3 and <p 
into TT, and are then written together in the form of ^ and t//. This is clearly proved 
by a comparison with the Latin scrlbo, scripsi, 

Obs. 2. Though the ? is likewise a double letter proceeding from aS, (§ 3.) yet in 
the formation and inflection of words it never occurs as proceeding from these let- 
ters, except in some adverbs of place formed with the addition of the syllable de, as 
'AeijvaKe for —atrde. (§ 116.) 



ACCUMULATION OF CONSONANTS. 37 

§23. 

1. Labials before an fj, in the middle of the word are con- 
stantly changed into /x, as (in the perf. of the pass, voice, and 
in the formation of words) 

XeLTTd) XiXsijUL-iuiai, rptjSw TQifi-na^ 
jpacpu) ypafi-jir]. 

2. The palatals and Unguals are likewise frequently changed 
before ii, viz. k and ^ i^^o y, as 

ttXIkw irXiy-fxa, rev^b) TeTvy-iuaif 
and ^, 9, r, Z^, into a, as 

adu) aor-fxa, tteWu) TrtTTHd-fxaL^ ^J7^/^a> xpiiCpKT-iaa. 

Obs. But in the general formation of words the palatal and lingual consonants 
are frequently left unchanged before /x, as a/cju>}, t'x/^a, "idficjv, ksv9[iojv, ttothoq : 
there are also other instances peculiar to some dialects ; as o^w (OAQ) gives lonice 
odfi"^, and usually oafirj. 

§34. 

1. The Unguals S, 0, r, Z) can stand only before liquids; 
before fi, however, they are frequently converted into o-, accord- 
ing to the preceding §. 

2. Before other linguals they are changed into o-, as 

r\^(i} r\(j-dr\v, ndOio TTELa-riov. 

3. They are generally dropped before o-, ea^. gr. 

aSii) a-(T(i}f TreiOu) Trel-cru), adyfxara (TWjua-cn, 

(j)paZ(jj (ppa-mg. 

Obs. With regard to the changes of r in the abbreviations of Kara, see § II7. 
06s. 2. 

§25. 

1. The consonant v usually remains unchanged only before 
^, 0, and r. Before labials it is converted into //, and before 
palatal letters it is changed into -y, which is pronounced like ng. 
Thus, for instance, the compounds of ahv and Iv become 

(TVfjL7ra(T-)(^b), £ju]3atvaj, cru/x^fioo), efiipv^og, 

kyKoXtj, (jvyyevrig, ^y^eipiZ(i)y lyKiu). 

Obs. 1. The addition of an enclitic (§14. Obs. 2.) constitutes an exception for the 
sake of distinctness, but only in writing ; as rovye, ovirep. 

2. Before liquids the v is changed into the same liquid, as 

(jvWiyw, iWdTTii), IfXfxivM, (JvppaTrTW, 
but the prep, ev generally remains unchanged before pylvpaTrru), 

3. Before o- and Z the v is partly retained in compounds, 
partly converted into cr, and partly thrown off, (see Obs. 2.) but 



38 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

in inflections the v generally disappears before o-, for instance, 
in the dat. pi. 

SatjU0v-£C3 ^aifio-di' juf)v-£c, iiir}~(Tiv. 
The preposition h remains here likewise unchanged, ew. gr. 
ivadio, Evt^iu). 

4. If in addition to the v, a S, 0, or r, (according to § 24.) 
has been rejected along with it, the short vowel becomes a long 
one; as 

TravT-£Q, 7ra-uL' rvipavTsg, rvxpacri) (§ 46.) 
for which purpose (according to § 27. 2.) £ is changed into 
£1, and o into ov, as 

<nrev^-(jt), fut. crTrat-crw* iKOVT-eg, dat. Ikov-giv* 

Ohs. 2. Some parts of verbs form exceptions to these rules, as Trs^avffai (2 perf. 
pass, of (paivcj), TrsTravaiQ subst. verb, of TnTra'ivoi ; and the nomin. of words of the 
third decl. which end in the gen. in vQoq, as i) sXfxivg, earth-worm, rj tth^ivq, car- 
riage-basket, Tipvvg. 

Obs. 3. Siv and ttoXiv convert their v before a single c also into cr, {ffvaaiTia, 
TraXicravTOQ,) but if there be another consonaut following and before ?, crvv rejects 
it altogether, {avaTr^iia, (rv(TKia.K,u), cv^vyia,) but ttolXiv commonly retains it 
{TraXivaKioQ). — "Ayav simply throws off the v wherever there is no reduplication, 
(as dydvvKpoQ, dydppoog,) dyacrOsvijg, dyciKXvTog. 

Obs. 4. The ancients also pronounced the v at the end of a word, when the next 
word began with a consonant, according to the principles of this §, particularly in 
the articles and prepositions. They would, for instance, pronounce tov /3w)li6j/, kv 
-TTvpi, avv tcapTTi^, like Ton^h)}xov, Ifxirvpi, avyKapin^. In ancient monuments, where 
the words are not separated, we frequently find them written thus. 

§ 26. — Moveable Final Letters. 

1. Some words and terminations have a double form, with 
and without a consonant at the end ; the former is commonly 
employed before a vowel, the latter before a consonant. 

2. Of this nature is especially the moveable v, or v li^t^XKvaTL- 
Kov\ which may either be thrown off or retained by the dat. pi. 
in GLv, and in verbs by all the third pers. ending in £v and lv, as 

TTciGLv siirev avTo, ttckjl yap eiTre roOro, 
iTv^pev £jU£, 'irvxpi ae, 
XiyovGLv avTOy Xiyovai tovto, 
TiOriaiv VTTO — 5 TiOrjdL Kara — . 

3. The following words and forms have the v i^eXicucrrfKov, viz. 
i. the <jiv, which denotes locality (from the dat. pi.), as '0Au/x7rt- 

^ So called because it Avas considered as not properly belonging to the ter- 
mination, and as being annexed to the final vowel merely to avoid the hiatus. 
See Obs. 2. 



MOVEABLE FINAL LETTERS. 39 

acTiv (§ 116) ; ii. the Epic end-syllable (ptv (§ 56, Obs. 9) ; iii. the 
numeral eUocnv, but which may also be used without the v 
before a vowel ; iv. the adverbs ir^pvcnv and v6cr(l)Lv ; v. the en- 
clitic particles kIv and vvv (§ 14) ; and vi. sometimes the demon- 
strative L (§ 80, Obs.). 

4i. The case is exactly the same with the <t in ovrtog ovtujj and 
in fii^pigj axpiQ ' but the latter two are also frequently found 
without the <t before a vowel. 

Obs. 1. The lonians cast off the v even before a voweL Poets, on the contrary, 
use it before a consonant, to effect a position ; and even in Attic prose it was 
frequently employed for the sake of intensity. It is besides met with in correct 
editions, conformably to ancient MSS. and inscriptions, without any regard to the 
word which follows, at the end of sections and books ; in short, wherever the word 
is not closely connected with the subsequent one ^. 

Obs. 2. This last circumstance clearly shows that this v is not, as is commonly 
taught, a mere contrivance for euphony's sake ; but that this, as well as the other final 
letters of the same kind, is really an ancient grammatical form, which was dropped 
before consonants when the language was polished. Hence there are also other 
forms, which cast off their final letter in the Ionic dialect, or for the metre's sake, 
as the adverbial terminations 6ev and kiq : for instance, dWoOs for dWoOev, ttoX- 
XoiKi for TToWaKLQ, drp'sfia and dTpsfxag. The v in compounds with the alpha ])ri- 
xatitum is exactly of the same nature with the v e(peXKV(XTiKbv, as, for instance, 
dvaiTioQ. (See below, § 120.) 

5. The particle ov, not, no, takes a k before vowels, and con- 
sequently a ■)(^ before the spiritus asper ; ex. gr. 

ov irapiaTLv, oujc tv^driv, ov\ vireanv. 
But when it closes a sentence, the k is dropped ; ex. gr. tovto S' 
ov, but this not. Ov, aXX orav — No : but if — 

6. The prep, e^, out, has this form merely before vowels, and 
at the close of a sentence ; ex. gr. 

^t, efxov, et, orov, KaKwv ^t, : 
but the <T, which is inherent in the ^, is dropped before all 
consonants, and it remains a k ; hence, 

Ik. tovtov, ek 6a\a(j<Tr}gi ek yrig. 
And this k continues unchanged, at least in writing, even in 
compounds, in which it constitutes the exceptions stated § 20, 
4, and § 22, 2. 

Obs. 3. That the two words ovic and Ik end in a k is no real exception to the rule 
of § 4, 4 ; for both, being unaccented, belong to those little words, which are so 
closely combined with the next that they form a separate 'word only for the mind, 
not for the ear. Hence one throws off its k at the end of a sentence, and the other 
employs in that case the fuller form m |. 

1 Metrical motives iuduce modern critics to place this v also at the end of most 
kinds of verses, though the following verse begins with a consonant. 



40 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§ 27. — Of the Interchange of the Vowels, 
1. Vowels are mutable in Greek as in other languages, with- 
out being subject to any steady law. The change is made 
through either inflection or derivation ; as, rpETrw, / turn, trpa- 
TTov, / turned, rpoTroc, « turn, mode, 

3. This mutability comprises also the shortening and 
lengthening of a vowel, commonly attended with some other 
change. Thus when e and o are lengthened for some reason 
or other, they are seldom converted into rj and w, but £ com- 
monly becomes u, and o ou. Compare Obs. 1. § 25, 4. § 41, 4. 
and § 46, 2. 

3. These changes constitute another principal peculiarity 
of the dialects, which are reviewed iii the following Observa- 
tions: — 

1. The Ionic dialect in particular lengthens the e and o of other dialects in this 
manner, but chiefly only when there is a semi-vowel following ; as, %hvoq, HvtKa, 
VTTtlp, for 'i'svoQ, strange, 'ivtKa, on account of, vTrsp, over ; vovaoQ, ovvajxa, TrovXvg, 
Kovpri, for v6(Tog, disease, ovof^a, name, ttoXvq, much, Koprj, girl, or when there is 
another vowel following, as Xeicjv for Xsojv, aTrtiog, cave, xp'^aeiog, golden, for -eog, 
of which licences poets, and especially the Epics, also avail themselves. But this, as 
we observed about reduplication, (§ 21. Obs. 1.) is not done arbitrainly ; no one, for 
instance, ever allowed himself this licence with jroXig, ovog, fxsvog, Trepl, &c. 

2. When a and o before a vowel are lengthened in the Ionic dialect, they become 
ai and oi, as aerbg, eagle, del, always, lonice akrbg, aid, Tcoa, grass, lonice Troirj. 

3. In other instances the Dorians, lonians, and poets do. the reverse : they say, 
for example, 'idt^e for 'idti^s, (from dtiKvvfii,) fi.EZ(ov, Kp'saocjv, x^P^^g, (gen. of x^^P)) 
for hhZ,(x)v, &c. : the ancient language has/36X£(T0£ instead of (SovXeaOe (see § 4. 06s. 
3.) and instead of the accus. in ovg the Dorians have og. (See the second Declension.) 

4. Instead of o and ov the Doric and Ionic dialect frequently has w, and before 
an (T even oi for ov, as Koipog for Kopog, or Kovpog, boy, dojXog for SovXog, slave, iov, 
(also Ionic,) for ovv, Maxra and MoT<Ta for Movaa, aKoiau) for aKoixria (from cLKOVio). 

5. The ri mostly proceeded from a, which prevailed in the ancient language, and 
continued the characteristic sound of the Dorians, who generally employ the long 
a for 7], as djxkpa for rifxepa, ^dfxa for ^rjixtj, aravai for arrival: and this likewise 
takes place in tlie solemn poetry of the choruses. (See § 1, 2, and 13.) 

6. But when the lonians (in a few solitary instances) change the rj into a, the 
a is short, as in dpdpvXa for aprypwTa, TtQdXvia, etc. : hence the a must not be pro- 
nounced long as in the Doric in such Ionic forms as XsXacrnai, (from Xr}9co,) [xtGafi,- 
(3pi.a for fiscrrjfxlSpia. 

7. The lonians else prefer the rj, and commonly use it for the long a, as vfispr], 
ao(piri, for -a, rjr]p, rikpog, for drip, dtpog, irjTpbg, OwprjS,, for iarpbg, physician, 6(i)pa^, 
armour, (gen, 9o)pdKog,) Trpijuaoj, Trpfjyfjia, for irpdaacj, 7rpay/xa. Hence also vr]vg, 
yprjvg, for vavg, ypavg, and even y for ai in the dat. pi. -yg, yai, of the first declen. 

8. The Ionic dialect has the r] instead of e only in some inflections, (as (3a<nXrja,) 
and in the diphthong ei, which the lonians frequently resolve into r)'i, as KXrjXg for 
KXdg, dyyffiov for dyyeiov, l3a(nXr]'ir] for ^aaiXtia. (§ 28. Obs. 3.) The Dorians 
have, before vowels, y instead of ei, as (ra^yov for <xt]fisTov. 

9. The lonians are also apt to change the a before a liquid or vowel into t, as 



INTERCHANGE OF THE VOWELS. 41 

TiaatpiQ for TkcaagEQ, four, 'ipatjv for ap(7r]v, masculine, veXog for vaXoQ, glass, fiv'sa 
for fxvda, and in the verbs in aw (see § 105. 06s.). In other instances they have a 
for «, as rgd-Kia, rdixvoj, for rpEirw, rejurw, [isyaOog for fi'sytOog. 

10. It is a peculiarity of the Ionic-Attic dialect, when a long a stands before o, to 
change the former into e, and the latter into w : as, for instance, Xdog, nation, vdog, 
temple, are Attice Xtojg, vtwg, xpdop.ai, I use, is lonice xp^^f^^h and thus the Ionic gen. 
in i(o is accounted for by the most ancient form in ao (see the first Declension) 2. 

11. In the compounds of avrbg, and the words 9avfxa, iconder, {davud^oj, &c.) and 
rpavjxa, wound, the lonians change the av into lov, (not (ou,) l[xeu)VTdv, kojvrbv, (see 
§ 74, 3.) 9(x)Vfj,a, TpMVfxa. The simple avrbg is unchanged by genuine Ionic 
writei's ; and ojvrbg is used merely for 6 avrog. (See § 29. Obs. 6.) 

12. Instances of other changes are : TvdpSaXig, jDorice Tr6pdaXig,—6voij.a, Police 
ovvfia, — karia, lonice larirj, hearth. 

Observations on the lengthening of Syllables in general (to § 21. and 27). 

13. The mere poetical lengthening of f and is commonly effected in the Ionic 
way, by changing them into ei and ov {Obs. 1). The is very seldom converted 
into (o, as 8vu), Aiwvvaog, for dvo, Aiovvcrog. When a, i, v, in common language 
short, are long in the ancient or poetical language, (as 'iXiou with the middle sylla- 
ble long, dvrip with the long a, and some others,) it is not apparent in writing, 
except sometimes through the accent, as in laog for laog. 

14. But in the most ancient writing they had no means to denote the lengthening 
of a syllable, the letters £ and serving at the same time for t] and ti, and for w and 
ov, and the consonants (according to § 21. Obs. 1.) not being written double. The 
writing continued uncertain until the grammarians settled it at least for the lan- 
guage in common use. 

1 5. The grammarians also introduced into the ancient poets signs to denote syl- 
lables metrically lengthened by reduplication, or long vowels and diphthongs. But 
the practice was never perfectly settled. Such words were frequently written in the 
common way, and the correct metrical pronunciation was left to the learned reader ^, 
There are many traces of this in the poetical works handed down to us : as oXorj, 
{II. a. 342. %. 5.) with a long syllable in the middle, and ^uixoiparo, {Od. ?. 434.) 
where the /x ought to be sounded double, and to be written double, as in 'ifxiiaOiv, 
And when we find in Homer the first syllable of ' ATcoXXojvog, aTrovkaOai, Gvvtx^g, 
o(pig, employed as a long one, it may be doubted whether this was done by lengthen- 
ing the vowel, or doubling the consonant. 

16. In modern times it has frequently been proposed to restore the ancient cus- 
tom so far as not to double the consonants ; which proposal has indeed been partly 
adopted, but in a very wavering and uncertain way. Beginners ought to be in- 
formed of this circumstance, that they may not be misled on finding sometimes 
dTToXXrjysiv, and sometimes aTroXrjytiv with the same quantity, and seeing in the 
same editions the reduplication observed in some words, and nut in others. 

But there is also frequently a double consonant close to a long vowel ; as ndXXov, 
ijffawv, iJTTujv, Kvujcabg, 'Yfxrjrrbg, Xev(T(T(i), Kpeiaaojv, /cpgirrwv. This is likewise 
the case with irpdaau), (Ion. Ttp-qadoj,) Tiapvaaabg, (Ion. Iiapvri(r<jbg,) Krj(pi(7<rbg, in 
which the vowel must be lengthened. Several editors prefer the ancient orthogra- 
phy in proper names, and write Kvoxrbg, Hapvrjabg, 'Kr](pi(Tbg, &c. The proper 

2 This change also takes place in the adj. 'iXtcog, (av, for 'iXdog, ov, in the gen. vtwg 
for vdbg, from vavg, and in several names in dog, as MtvkXaog, 'AfifLdpaog, or -eojg, 
but not in those in dog, as Olvoiiaog. 

2 The same was done in the opposite case, when long vowels were to be short- 
ened. See § 7, 16, and Obs. 16. 



43 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

names of places iu -ov(r(Ta come from -oiaaa : S/coroiJcrcra, YliBriKovaaai, 'Apyivova- 
crai, Sec. But SwpuKOvcrai -ovaiog, with "SivpaKoffioQ short, were ah'eady in use 
among the ancients. (See Buttmann's Complete Greek Grammar^ § 21. 06s. 9.) 

§ 28. Contraction. 

1. A vowel, before which is another vowel in the same word, 
is called vocalis pura, because it sounds pure, that is to say, 
without being introduced by a consonant; and especially the 
end-syllables beginning with a vowel, as a, oc? w, &c., are called 
pure, when they are preceded by another vowel, as in GO(l)iay 

2. The characteristic difference between the Ionic and Attic 
dialect is, that the former is in most instances fond of the 
meeting of vowels, and the latter mostly avoids it. (See, how- 
ever, Obs. 1. and 5.) 

3. The usual remedies are — 

1.) the elision, when one vowel is rejected, and the other 

remains unchanged. This is chiefly done when single 

words meet together, and in compound words ; see § 30 

and 120. 
2.) the contraction, when several vowels are combined 

together in a long syllable. This is done conformably 

to the following main principles : — 
a. Two vowels form a diphthong of themselves ; thus arises et 

and ot from a and oV, as reix^'i rdx^h at^ot al^ot (§ 49). 
The other proper diphthongs are generally not formed in 

this manner, but the improper always, 

a, rj, (^, from di, rji^ w'i, as yijpdi 7^7pct, (§ 54.) Opr)i(T<ja OpyGcra, 

XtviaTog X(farog (§ 68). 

b. Two vowels are converted into a long kindred sound ; and 
we generally find 

Y) from ea — rdxea reixr}^ K£ap Krip, {heart,) 
£L from ££ — iroies ttoUi, pieOpov peiOpov (stream,) 
( ao — and aov — TifxaojiAev TifxCjix^v, 

J Tljddov TlfltJ, 

(i) trom^ ^^1 ,^r ,^- 

oa — ana or] — mcoa mow, 

oo TrXoog irXovg, 

fxiddoofiev jmLaOovfiev, 

0£ -ejUiaOoE ejuicrOov, 

eo rdx^og raixovg, 

WodofXEV TTOlOVjUiaV, 



from^ 



CONTRACTION, 43 

c. The doubtful vowels (a, t, v,) absorb, when short, the 
following vowel, and thus become long ; as, 

atOXog, contest, (short a, Ion.) aOXog, (Att.) Tifxas TLjuia. 

XiLog Xlog, {native of Xiog,) "I^a "I(^t (dat.). 

ixOveg and ac, (short v,) ixOvg (from the sing. Ix^vg)* 

d. A long syllable absorbs a vowel without any other 
change : this occurs especially with 

a, £, o, 
before and after every kindred long syllable, and before 
the w, as, for instance, 

(piXiu) 0tXwj TijutyievTog Tifxrivrog, 

TljUCid) TlfXbJ) I\0<JH^CHi)V (loUg o) Y[0(JZL^C)V, 

Xaag Xag, (stone,) ijlig06ov(Jl julktOovcji, 

ttXool ttXoT. 
4. Whenever any diphthong, the improper included, formed 
with an i, is to undergo a contraction with a preceding vowel, 
the two first vowels are treated according to the laws above 
stated, and the i either becomes an iota subscriptum, as in 

TVTTT-eaL rviTT-ri (Obs. II. to § 103). 

ad-dio a-d(jj, aoi-^i) ^'^V? 

TLfi-au and Tijui-ay TLfx-q^^ 
or it is thrown out, if the iota subscriptum be not admissible, 
as in 

fiiaO-o^Lv ixiaQ-ovv, ^Oivoug ^Orrovg (§ 41. Obs. 5). 

Obs. 1. These principles apply only to the regular and analogical contraction. 
Several exceptions and peculiarities will be found below in the Declensions and 
Conjugations ; and with regard to the crasis or contraction of two words, see the 
following §. But the Attic writers have not the contraction in every instance in 
which it might take place conformably to the above laws, as may be seen further 
on, and by attentive reading. 

06s. 2. The lonians, on the contrary, as has already been observed above, com- 
monly neglect the contraction, and frequently resolve a long syllable into its indi- 
vidual parts, though long ago disused by the other Greek tribes ; as, for instance, 
the second pers. sing, of the pres. indie, in the pass, voice rvTTTeat, instead of TVTrry, 
even (pLX'seai, iTraLvkeai, &c., instead of 0tX%, which commonly is again contracted 
into (piXy : Attice tvtttei, (piXel, according to Obs. 3. to § 103. The Doric dialect 
has also many resolved forms in common with the Ionic. 

Obs. 3. It is likewise owing to this propensity of the lonians that we so fre- 
quently find in the Epic poets diphthongs separated in some words, as Trd'ig for 
TTolg, otoj, svrpoxoQ, and ayyrj'iov for dyyeiov, &c. ; vowels extended, as fdavOev, 
Kprjrjvov, for (pavOsv, Kprjvov, and the Ionic introduction of an £, as rje for rj, T^eXiog 
for ijXioQ, letKoai for a/cocri, ddeXcpebg, tovteov, &c.^ 

^ The student ought, however, to remember that grammarians speak of these 
separations and introductions in constant reference to the common form ; but this 
common form itself may be a contracted form, derived from such a separation. 
This may be proved in some instances, as in kit for si), from Ivg, since there is no 
word ivQ : separations, besides, occur only in a very limited number of forms. 



44 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 4. Sometimes the lonians favour the meeting of vowels by throwing out a 
consonant, as rkpaog for repaTog (see § 49). Compare also Tvirnai, &c. in Obs. 3 
to § 103. 

Obs. 5. There are, however, instances where the Ionic dialect has the conti'action, 
and the Attic has it not ; as igog with a long t, Ion. for Uqoq. The lonians have 
also, in common with the Dorians, a peculiar contraction of to into tv, as TrXtvvtQ 
for irXkoviQ, Troi-evixevog from -eoixevog, for which we commonly have -ovfxtvog. 
But the Ionic dialect in the ancient Epic poets makes a much more frequent use of 
the contraction than the later Ionian prose-writers. 

Obs. 6. The ancients frequently expressed all the vowels in writing, and left the 
conti'action to the speaker, which is called synizesis (avvi^rjcng) or avvaXoKprj. This 
custom has been retained in many instances in the works of the ancient poets, 
especially the Epics, ex. gr. II. \. 282. "A^ptov ^£ (JTrjOea, where the terminations 
^peov and 06a must be pronounced as one syllable, "Acppsvv dh (rrfiOrj : (5. 490. 
xd\ic60v Sk fioi iirop svtii] (pronounce ^aXKovi^). In the Attics we have frequently 
in this way Oebg, Qtbv, which else never occurs as^a contraction, and some proper 
names, as Nf07rr6\£/iO(,\ See about a synizesis between two words, § 29, the last 
Obs. 

Obs. 7. That kind of contraction stated under d. {<pi\k(o, <pi\CJ, and such like) 
might be considered as an elision, (viz. the dropping of the e,) but it is more correct 
to give that name only to those cases in which one vowel is merely thrown off 
without intending a mixed sound. This (excepting such compounds as tTrdyio for 
tTTi-dyo)) occurs in the middle of words chiefly only in some Ionic abbreviations, 
as 0o/3£o for <poj3sto (see § 105. Obs. ^). But in the first-mentioned instances the 
language evidently intended a mixed sound, — as is shown by the analogy of the 
other cases, and the circumflex where it takes place, (see Text 6.) — and the already 
existing one long vowel was retained for that purpose. 

Accent and Quantity. 

5. When neither of the two syllables, which are to be con- 
tracted, is accented, the mixed sound generally is also not 
accented ; as TrepiirXooQ, hijuaov, contr. TrspLTrXovgj erijULiiJv* 

Obs. 8. Exceptions to this general rule are rare and anomalous ; for instance, the 
contraction of xp^^^^og into xpvaoi/e, &c. Compare § 60, 6. 

6. But if one of the two original syllables has the accent, the 
mixed sound also takes this accent, which, if it be the penul- 
timate or antepen. syllable, is regulated by the general rule 
(§ 10 and 11). If it be on the last syllable, it takes the 
circumflex, {voog vovg, (piXea) (piXio, &c.) unless the original form 
had the acute accent on the last syllable, which, however, is 
seldom the case, and then the acute accent is retained, as lav — 
rjv, eaTaog — ecrrivg, ^aig — ^a.g. 

Obs. 9. Both are grounded on the theory stated in § 9, Obs. 1 ; and exceptions in 
either instance are rare (see, for instance, the accus. in w, § 49). 

Obs. 10. In some few contractions the accent is transposed ; depyog — dpybg, 
( § 121. Obs. 6.) deXkarog—dsXrjTog, &c. (§ 41. Obs. 7.) See also the other cases 
of TTtpiTrXovg, 8cc. § 36. Obs. 

Obs. 11. Though every mixed sound is essentially long, yet the pronunciation in 
some declensions, which have a contracted a or t, has again obscured this sound, so 



HIATUS — CRASIS. 45 

that it is sometimes short. This is the case with the neuter pi. in a, as to. yspa, 
(see § 54. Obs.) and a few datives, as KXso(3i from K\so(3iq, tog, (in Herod.) to 
which must be added dai (i) and a few similar Epic forms (see § 56. Obs. 5). But 
some of these instances at least may also be considered as elisions of the first vowel, 
as may be seen in the Obs. to § 53. 

§ 29. — Hiatus — Crasis. 

1. When of two words immediately following each other, the 
first ends with a vowel, and the second begins with a vowel, the 
spiritus, which is heard between them, be it the asper or the 
lenis, produces an effect called a hiatus, still more disagreeable 
to the ear of the Greeks, and especially the Athenians, than 
the accumulation of vowels in the middle of a word. 

The hiatus was not much tolerated in poetry, and in Attic 
poetry hardly ever. But even in prose, (excepting the Ionic,) 
its frequent recurrence was not liked. 

Obs. 1. The Attic verse allowed the hiatus only after the interrogative t'i, after 
the particles on and irspi, and in the expressions ovbk tie, /iJj^t dg, (§ 70, 1.) iv 
oUa, &c. &c. 

2. The natural remedy against the hiatus is the coalition of 
two syllables into one ^ ; which is of two kinds : 1) when one 
of the vowels is entirely removed, it is an elision by an apo- 
strophus, § 30; 2) when both are blended together into one 
sound or syllable, it is a crasis {Kpacrig from Kspavvvjui). The 
latter, especially in prose, applies only to a limited number of 
cases, which will be stated in the Obs. to this §. 

Obs. 2. With regard to the crasis, there are, first, three circumstances to be 
noticed : — 

a.) Every crasis renders the syllable long (§ 7, 7) : this distinguishes several of 
its instances from the elision through the apostrophus, ex. gr. TdXr)9ig, Kaptr?) (for 
TO d\., Kai dp. with a short a). Hence such as rdvdpbg must be lengthened in 
pronunciation, and rdWa (for rd aXXa) must be marked with the circumflex, 
Avhich some grammarians will not allow, though they accent TuXXa. But other 
cases, like Tavrb, ravrd, (for to avTO, rd avrd,) must be treated in the same way 
for the sake of uniformity. (Compare § 28. Obs. 7.) 

b.) The iota subscriptum takes place only when the t is the last of the vowels 
which are to be contracted ; therefore it is used in Kq,Ta from Kai tiTa, but not in 
Kav from kuI dv."^ 

c.) There is commonly a ' over the crasis, which sign is called a coronis {Kopu)vig). 

Ojs. 3. The crasis is most used with the article : as 
ovK, ovTTi, for 6 Ik, 6 sttI, 

TovvavTiov, TovTTog, for to IvavTiov, to tirog, 
Tovvofia, for to ovofia, 

^ That the v l^sXKucrrtKov cannot be considered as a remedy against the Jiiatus, 
may be seen § 26. Obs. 2. 

2 This rule, through a needless striving for distinctness, is frequently deviated 
from, and the writing of k^v, K^'Trtira, and such like, adopted. 



46 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

raud, Tcnri, iov ra kaa, to. IttL "^ . , , 

, n^ ^w i> ' ' n» ' «'^^ (With a loiig a I See the pre- 
TayaOa, raAAa. tor r« ayaUa, ra aWa, > _ ° , * 

,. ^, „j, ^ < ,^ «r. ( ceding (>6s. a. 

TaXrjOeg, tuClkov, tor ro aA. ao. J " 

wTrairwr, wvrjp, for 6 aTrairwv, 6 av^p ^, 
with which the less frequent crasis of the artlc. postpositiv. or pronoun relative 
neuter agrees : as 

aSo^e for a tSo^s, dv for a av, &c. 
Obs. 4. A c?'asis is not easily recognised, when diphthongs are absorbed : as 

ovfioi, for 01 knot, 

WTTavToJVTeg or aTravriovTeg for oi aTravroivrfc, 

TCLvSpbg, ravdpi, for roi) ctvdpbg, t<^ avdpi, (see 06s. 2. a.) 

ravTov, TavT(p (§ 74.) cnro ravTOfidrav, 

TCLTiov for ro air to v, and such like ; 
or when 9 is used on account of the spir. asp. (§ 17. 06s. 2.) as for instance, 

OoifxciTiov, pi. Boiixaria, for ro tju., rd i/i. 

OrjfjLSTe^ov, for roi) rip,eTipov. 
Obs. 5. The vowels of the article are generally contracted into d with gVtpog, 
which comes from the ancient Doric form artpog, (short a,) for sVfpo^ : thus, 

ciTspog, cirepoi, for 6 eTspog, ol srspoi, 

Oarkpov, daTsp(p, Odrepa, for tov, r<p, rd kr. 
Obs. 6. The crasis is even known to the Ionic dialect, but this always contracts 
oa into w, as rwyaXjwa, T0)\rj9sg, rwTTo tovtov, for ro aTro tovtov, and at the same 
time alters the spir. asper into the lenis, as 

wpicrrof, for 6 dpicrrog, u)X\oi, for ot dWot. 
The same with hjvrbg, tojvto, for 6 avrbg, rb avrb (javTo). 
Obs. 7. Kai also frequently makes a crasis, ex. gr. 

Kuv for Kal sv, — Kav for Kai dv and Kal edv. 

KairuTa, KUKUvog, Kayo}, for Kai sTrnTa, &.c. (see Obs. 2. b.) 

Kq.Ta, for fcai £tra, 

Kdpsrj}, Kicrog, for fcat dpsr)}, /coi 'laog, 

K(^vog, Kt^Kia for /cat olvog, o'lKia, 

xdrepog, for jcai srepog — %oJ, for jcai 6 — 
Other long syllables remain unchanged : 

Kii, Kov, Kev, for Kai si, ov, ev : khxov, for Kal el^/ov. 
The lonians and Dorians use rj for a : as Kfjv, KiJTrnra. 

Obs. 8. The particles roi, fievroi, tjtoi, make likewise a long a with the particles 
dv and d'pa, and should therefore be written as erases, rdv, rdpa, fxsvrdv : but we 
commonly find r' dv, t dpa or r dpa, &c., in which case roi must not be con- 
founded with TE. 

Obs. 9. Of many other erases, which we leave to the observation of the student, 
we only notice 

kyi^jiai, ly<^da, for eyoj olfxai, olda. 

[xovcTTiv, fxovdojKtv, &c. for jxoi kariv, 'ed(i)Kev, 
Trpovpyov, TrpovXiyov, for irpb epyov, oXiyov, 
Obs. 10. We must also consider as erases all instances in which the first vowel of 
a word is only absorbed by the preceding long syllable : as 

ovvsKa, for ov svsKa, 

bOovvsKa, for otov evsKa, (compare Obs. 4.) 

^ It is unquestionable, that, at least in the most obvious instances, as dvijp, 
dvQp(t}irog, ddtX^bg, the only usual contraction of the Attic dialect is that of 6 with 
a into a long d, as dvrjp, (pronounce hdner,) and wherever we find merely dvt}p, 
and the meaning requires the article, it ought to be dv*}p, and is mostly written 
thus hi all new editions. 



I 



HIATUS — CRASIS. 47 

still often erroneously written o9' ovvsKa, 

<Zv9p(i)7re, (bvsp, wva^, for w avOpoJirs, dvep, dva^. 
For distinctness most of these words are, however, noted as elisions with the apo- 
strophus : as 

a> 'yaOh (dyaOe) — ry 'prifxiq, {ipr]fxia) 

TTov '(TTiv {i(7Tiv) — eyoj 'v toIq {kv). 
Other grammarians therefore distinguish not only these cases from the elision (§ 30.) 
but also from the crasis by the name of aphaeresis, d^aipsaiQ ; the cutting off of the 
first vowel in the second word ^. 

Obs. 11. Many other contractions were never noted in writing, but left to pro- 
nunciation, as a synizesis, (compare § 28. Obs.) which, however, is not easily ascer- 
tained ; ex. gr. eTrei oh as an iambus, (Soph. Phlloct. 446.) /x/) oi) in Attic poetry 
always as one syllable. And in Homer 77 daoKiv as a dactylus, {II. a. 446.) — 
d(7J3e- I OT(p, ovd' vi- \ bv, II. p. 89. 

§ 30. Of the Apostrophus. 

1. In the Greek, as in other languages, a short vowel at the 
end of a word before another vowel is thrown out hj elision, and 
the apostrophus ' is placed as a mark or sign over the empty- 
space ; for instance, 

£7r' Ifxov for £7ri Ifiov : 
and if the subsequent word has the spir. asper, the eventually 
preceding tenuis (according to § 17, 3.) is aspirated ; as 

a<f OU, for ttTTO oi>. 

2. In prose, some words of frequent recurrence most com- 
monly are attended with an elision, especially kWa, apa and 
dpa, ava, dia, Kara, fx^ra, napa, awo, viro, a/i^f, avrl, lirl, Be, te, 
yi : or frequent combinations, as vi] A/a, {vrj Ai\) iravr civ, (for 
TTavTu av,) and such like. The elision occurs less frequently 
in other words, and most seldom in Ionic prose. Poets^ on the 
contrary, avail themselves of this licence with almost all short 
vowels ; only the short v, the monosyllables in a, i, o, (excepting 
the Epic pa,) and the prep. Trspl never admit the elision. 

Obs. 1. If the rejected vowel had the accent, this accent is always dropped in pre- 
positions and conjunctions ; as aV from dirb, dW from dXXd, ovd' from ovds. In 
all other words the accent is always tlirown on the preceding syllable, and con- 
stantly as an acute accent : for instance, 

(KaKci) KUK 'iirr], {duvd, deiv') 'irraQov, {(prjjjil) (prjjx syw, 
{rdyaOd) rdydO' av^erai, (cTrra) sttt' eaav. 
Obs. 2. To determine when the elision is used in prose, and when not, is attended 
with great difficulty, because even Se, d-rro, and such like, are often found without 

^ That there really is a crasis in these instances, just as ^iXsw, 0i\w, is a real con- 
traction, is proved by the analogy of many known erases like uSo^e, rdirl, Orjrkpg,, 
{ry erepcf,) and by the fact that such an elision never takes place after a short vowel. 
To write a crasis distinctly is often attended with some difficulty, especially when 
the absorbed syllable had the accent, which in that case is frequently marked over 
the empty space ; as ti firj "xotiii (txoi/xi). Such instances, and those stated above, 
must be considered as if they were written ixijxoi-fii; Trjpriixiq., &c. 



48 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

an apostrophus. This difficulty is increased by its being proved that the ancients 
frequently did actually write down the vowel, which is to be dropped in speaking. 

Obs. 3. In the Attic dialect the dat. sing, in i and the particle on never undergo 
an elision, and in Epic poetry chiefly only when there is no possibility of confound- 
ing them with the usually apostroplied accus. in a and the particle ore, as kv dair' — , 
a.(TTsp' oTTwpivtp, — yLyvwcFKiov, ot' dvaXKiQ. 

Obs. 4. Third persons taking the moveable v may likewise be apostrophed by 
poets in case of need, and the same may be done with the dat. pi. ; only the 
terminations ai(Ti, yai, oi<n, of the first and second decl. most common in the ancient 
language, ai'e then assimilated to the terminations aig, yg, oig, and hence admit of no 
apostrophus before a vowel. But the elision of the dat. pi. of the third decl. is 
avoided, because it would almost always be like another casus, ending in g. This 
elision is, however, sometimes admitted by the intensive Epic form in (rcri, as %f ipftrat, 
TToaffi, 

Obs. 5. Poets also apply the elision (though less frequently) to the diphth., 
but only in the passive terminations fiai, aai, Tai, adai, as ^ovXeaO' t(pi], 'ipx^H'' ^X^'^ ^• 
That the datives [xoi, aoi, were elided, is still very questionable. See Buttmann's 
Complete Gi'eek Grammar, 1. § 30. Obs. 6. Whatever else is stated as long syllables, 
which have undergone an elision, especially Kal and rot, (§ 29. Obs. 7, 8.) belongs to 
Crasis, and so does the seeming elision of rd, to, (§ 29. 06s. 2. a.) and that of initial 
vowels (in the same §, Obs. 10.) 

With regard to the apocope in ctp, Trap, av, (instead of dvd.,) before a consonant, 
see below § 1 1 7- Obs. 

§ 31. — Of the Parts of Speech, 

1. There are, strictly speaking, but three principal parts of 
speech. For every word, which names or denotes an object, is 
a Noun ; the word, by which something is predicated of an 
object, is called a Verb ; and all the words, by which the 
speech thus formed is particularised, connected, and animated, 
are comprised under the name of Particles. 

2. But these three principal parts of speech are generally 
subdivided, so as to form eight parts of speech in the languages 
with which we are best acquainted. 1.) The Noun, which is 
either substantive or adjective, gives 2.) the Pronoun, which 
also includes the article, and 3.) the Participle, which with 
regard to syntax is part of the verb. 4.) The Verb remains 
undivided; the Particles are 5.) the Adverb, 6.) the Pre- 
position, 7.) the Conjunction, and 8.) the Interjection; 
but Greek grammarians commonly rank the latter among the 
adverbs. 

^ There are also instances of elision quoted of the inf. aor. I. act. in ai, yet none 
where the diphthong dropping before a short vowel leaves the syllable a short one ; 
the metre everywhere requires or allows a long syllable in that case. All such in- 
stances are, therefore, to be considered as erases, conformably to the rules laid down 
in the preceding § ; but (if the syllable is not written in full as a synizesis) the 
apostrophus must be used for the sake of distinctness ; in one case thus, yswo-' v/iag, 
for yiixyai v/xdg, (long v,) in the other thus, yj)//ai V^ps {eTrrjpt). 



GENDER. 49 

OF THE NOUN AND ITS DECLENSIONS. 

§ Z%—OftTie Genders. 

1. The masc, fern, and /zew^. Genders of the noun are mostly 
shown by the terminations, and will be noticed in each decL 
They are indicated in the grammar by the article b, [he,] -f}, 
(she,) TO {it) \ See its declension, § 75. 

2. Personal denominations {man, woman, god, goddess, &c.) 
always agree wdth the natm'al sex, be the termination what it 
may: for instance, i) 6vyaTr}p, daughter, i] vvoq, the daughter-in 
law. The diminutives in ov are, however, excepted, being 
ahvays of the neuter gender ; as to yvvaiov, little woman, from 
yvvi), ivoman, to jusipaKiov, little youth, from fiEipa^, youth. 

Obs. 1. In the class of diminutives must also be ranked to tskvov, or to tsko^, 
child, and the pi. to. TraidiKa, used instead of the sing, to denote darling. All words, 
however, which are not in immediate contact with such personal neuters, are always 
construed in reference to the real sex and number. Homer even says tskvov (piXs. 
The word to dvdpaTrodov, slate, is scarcely to be mentioned here, because this de- 
nomination denotes the slave as a thing, and not as a person. 

Obs. 2. Hence every personal denomination, common to both sexes, is also 
genms communis, in grammar : for instance, instead of 6 olvOq^ttoq, {Jug homo,) a 
woman is called >] dvOpcoTvog {licec foemina). It is the same with 6 and 77 Qibg, god 
and goddess, 6 and 77 Tpo^bg, tutor and nui'se, 6 and r) <pv\a%, male a.ndi female keeper or 
guard, &c., though several of these words have also their own peculiar feminine 
appellations, as 77 9i.a, goddess, which are not so readily used by Attic writei-s. 

06s. 3. Several names of animals are likewise generis communis, as, for instance, 
6 and r} ^ovq, {ox, cow,) a and y) 'iintoQ {horse). With regard to most animals, one 
and the same gender serves for both sexes ; and this gender, when it is masc. or 
fem., is called genus epicoenum (as, for instance, 6 Xvkoq, wolf; t) aXwyri]'^, fox). But 
even in those, which are generis communis, one of the two genders applies to the 
species ; as 6 'ittttoq is a horse in general and in an indefinite way, but ai aiyeg applies 
to the whole species. The fem. is mostly preferred ; thus ai (36iQ (but only in the pL) 
most commonly denotes horned cattle in general. "A^ktoq, bear, and KdfirjXog, camel, 
when the sex is of no particular importance, are always employed as of the fem. 
gender, (17 dpKTog, i] Kdixr]\og,) even in speaking of the male ; and this is also fre- 
quently the case with iXa^og, stag, and kviov, dog. The fem. 7) 'imrog signifies like- 
wise horse, cavalry. 

3. Of the masculine gender are (as in Latin) — 
the names of nations : 

ol "EkvOoi, 01 VaXaTai, &C. 
the names of rivers (according to 6 woTafiog, river): 

6 QepfjLw^wv, 6 I\r}V£ioc, &c. 
the names of months, (according to 6 firiv, month,) without excep- 
tion those ending in wv : as 

6 FdjurjXtwv, &c. 

^ See the reason in the Note to §-75. 

E 



50 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



the names of winds (according to 6 avEfjiog, wind) : as 
6 Z^(pvpog, 6 f^oppag. 
4. Of the feminine gender are, the names of trees, as 17 (prijbg, 
beech-tree, 1) wirvg, pine ; and of towns, countries, and islands, as 
7? Y^opivdoc, 7} MyviTTog, Egypt (but 6 MyviTTog, the Nile) ; 17 
AaKedaijuwv, r) Aeaj^og, &c. 

06s. 4. Exceptions to this rule are (and therefore remain masculine) — 

1.) The names of some trees, as 6 Ipivevg, wild fig-tree ; 6 ^oivi^, palm-tree, 

6, y KspaffOQ, cherry-tree, 6, r) kotivoq, wild olive-tree, b, rj TrciTrvpoQ. 
2.) The plurals of the names of towns ending in oi, as oi ^iXiTriroi, and those in 
evg throughout, as ^avorevg ; of those in og, the word 'Op%ojw£j/6e is con- 
stantly masc. IlvXog, 'Eiridavpog, 'AXiaprog, 'Opxriorbg, are commonly so ; 
most of those in ovg, gen. ovvrog ; in ag,gen. avrog ; as 6 ^tXivovg, 6 Tdpag; 
but those in ojv are commonly of the /em. gender, as rj Ba[3vXu)v, 6, r), Svkwwv. 
Neuter remain, without exception, the names of towns ending in ov and og 
{gen. ovg), as to AovXL)(iov, to "Apyog. 

§ 33. — Declension. 

1. The Greek declension has the five known cases of other 
languages, without any particular form for the Latin ablative, 
which is supplied partly by the gen. and partly by the dat. 

3. There is an additional number in both the Greek de- 
clensions and conjugations, viz. the dual, when the question is 
of two. Yet it is not always used ; many authors do not employ 
it at all. It is mostly employed by the Attic writers. 

3. The dual has only two terminations, one for the nomin,, 
ace. and vocat. ; the other for the gen. and dat. 

4. The Greek grammar has three declensions, which corre- 
spond to the first three Latin declensions, and the terminations 
of which are stated jointly in the following table : — 



Sing. 


1st Decl. 


2nd Decl. 


3rd Decl. 


Nom. 


ri, a 


m, ac 


og, Neuter ov 


— 


Gen. 


r\Q—ag 


ov 


ov 


og {(jjg) 


Dat. 


V ~ 


" ^ 


V 


t 


Ace. 


y\v - 


- av 


ov 


a or V, Neuter like 


Voc. 


7) - 


- a 


E, Neuter ov 


— the Nomin. 


Dual. 










N.A.V. 


a 




0) 


£ 


G.D. 


aiv 




OLV 


OLV 


PL 










Nom. 


at 




01, Neuter a 


Eg, Neuter a 


Gen. 


wv 




(i)V 




Dat. 


aig 




oig 


<JIV or (TL 


Ace. 


ag 




ovg. Neuter a 


ag. Neuter a 


Voc. 


at 




01, Neuter a 


Eg, Neuter a 



DECLENSION. 51 

See about what is called the second Attic decl. § 37. It is 
omitted here for the sake of simplicity. 

5. When these terminations are pure, and admit the contrac- 
tion, (§ 28^) the contracted declension takes place, as it is 
stated below with regard to the three declensions. The words, 
which admit this contraction in all cases and numbers, are called 
oXoiraOr} {completely suffering). This is always the case with 
the contracted first and second decl., but properly never with 
the third. (See § 48. Obs, 2.) 

6. All the terminations noted above are mere terminations 
of cases, and therefore make no part of the root of the words. 
Whatever is immediately before these terminations is the root ; 
for instance, tljll is the root of n/irig. Hence the first and second 
declensions differ essentially from the third, in so far as the 
first two decl. contain alreadv in their nominat. a termination 
of case, whilst the third decl. does not so. In the first two 
decl., therefore, the root is apparent in the nominat.; whilst 
in the third decl., though it be likewise contained in the nomi- 
nat., it is commonly with some alterations. 

06s. 1. The gen. pi. is iov in all the three declensions. 

06s. 2. The dat. sing, is i in all the three declensions ; in the first two it is the 
iota subscrlptam. 

Obs. 3. The dat. pi. is properly <nv or ai in all the three declensions ; for aiq, oig, 
is only an abbreviation of the ancient form uktiv, okjlv, or aicri, oiai. (§ 30. 06s. 4.) 

06s. 4. The meat, generally is like the nom. Even where it has a separate form, 
the nom. is often used instead of it, especially by the Attic writers. 

06s. 5. The neuters have, as in Latin, three cases alike, {nom., ace, voc.) and their 
pi. is in a. 

Obs. 6. The three Greek declensions are very much like the first three Latin decl.; 
the Greek eg is in Latin us, or (in the gen.) is ; ov and wv is in Latin ^im, and the 
Greek v in general is in Latin m. 

Obs. 7- The Dual is, perhaps, only an old abbreviated form of the pi., which cus- 
tom afterwards confined to the number 2. This is proved by the conformity of the 
pi. dfXfis, vnne, (see § 72. 06s. 6, 10,) with the dual of the thii'd decl. Hence we 
find, especially in Epic poets, unquestioned instances of the dual instead of the pi. 
They are, however, chiefly in vei-bs, (see below, § 87. 06s. 6,) and in participles. 
{11. e. 487. Hymn, in Apoll. 487, &c.) 

7. With regard to accents, a general rule is, that the termi- 
nations of the gen. and dat., when long and accented, always 
take the circumflex, but the nomin., accus., and vocat. take the 
acute accent. Let it only be remembered that in the third 
decl. the termination of the nomin. and vocat. sing, is not the 
termination of a case, according to § 39. 

E 2 



52 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



§ 34. — First Declension, 

1. The words in r]Q and aq are all masculine , and those in r] 
and a are feininine. 

2. The words in a have in the gen. ag, and retain their a in 
all their terminations of the sing., when there is a vowel before 
it, (a purum, § 28, 1,) as (TO(l)La, or an p, as y]fxipa. The con- 
tracted nouns also retain it, as /xva, (see Obs. I.) also aXaXa, ^e?^. 
ag, {ivar-shout,) and some proper names: Ar^Sa, 'AvSpo/xc^a, <I>fAo- 
juJ/Xa, Fcya, AioTifxa, which likewise have a long a in the nomin. 

3. All the other words in a have rjc in the gen., y in the dat. 
but they resume their a in the «cc. and voc. (See Moi)a-a.) 

4. The four terminations agree in the pi. and dual. See the 
following examples, in which the changes, which the accent un- 
dergoes according to the general rules, have been attended to. 



\ 



Sing. 


ri, {honor,) 


r},{wisdom,) 


rj, (Muse,) 


o, 


(citizen,) 


b,{youngman,) 


Nom. 


rifiri 


Gocpia 


Movaa 


7ro\iT7]g 


vw.viag 


Gen. 


Tifirig 


Gocpiag 


Mov(7}]g 


TToXlTOV 


veavLOv 


Dat. 


Tifiy 


ao(pi(^ 


MovGy 


TToXiry 


veavia 


Ace. 


TijLiriv 


(JO (piav 


Movaav 


TroXiTrjv 


vsaviav 


Voc. 


Tifxri 


(Totpia 


Moucra 


TToXtra 


veavia 


Dual. 












N.A.V. 


Tifxa 


(Tocpia 


Movaa 


TToXiTa 


veavia 


G.D. 


TifxaTv 


Go^iaiv 


MovGaiv 


TToXiraiv 


veaviaiv 


Plur. 












Nom. 


TifxaX 


(TO (fiia I 


Movaai 


TToXtrai 


veaviai 


Gen. 


Tl/ULMV 


ao(j)LU)v 


MovGtov 


TToXircov 


veaviwv 


Dat. 


TifiaXg 


aocpimg 


Movaaig 


TToXiraig 


veaviaig 


Ace. 


TLfxag 


Goc^lag 


MovGag 


TToXiTag 


veaviag 


Voc. 


Tifxai 


aO(l)iai 


MovGai 


TToXtrai 


veaviai 


Sing. 


77, [right,) 


ri,[opinion,) 


Y], [trident,) 


v,{fcnife,) 


6,{Atrides,) 


Nom. 


SlKY] 


yvwjurj 


rpiaiva 


paxaipa 


^Arpei^Yig 


Gen. 


SiKYig 


^vwfxng 


rpiaivi]q 


pa\aipag 


'ArpEiSov 


Dat. 


yvwixy 


rpiaivrj 


paxaipa 


'ArpeiSyj 


Ace. 




^Vlji}fXY\V 


rpiaivav 


pa^aipav 


'ArjOft^rjy 


Voc. 
Dual. 

N.A.V. 


dkv 


yVWfJLTf] 


TpiaLva 


fiaxaipa 


'ArpEiSri 


diKa 


yvu)fia 


rpiaiva 


paxaipa 


'ArpuBa 


G.D. 


^iKaiv 


yvwfxmv 


rpiaivaiv 


pa^aipaiv 


^ArpeiSaiv 


Plur. 












Nom. 


diKat 


JVMfiaL 


TpiaLvai 


p.a\aipaL 


^ArpEidaL 


Gen. 


^lkCjv 


yvijjfiCjv 


TpiaivCjv 


paxaipMv 


'Arpc/^wv 


Dat. 


ciKaig 


yvujjuaig 


rpiaivaig 


fxaxaipaig 


^ Arpd^aig 


Ace. 


SiKag 


yvwfjiag 


rpiaivag 


paxuipiig 


'Arpd^ag 


Voc. 


SiKaL 


yvtjfxat 


Tpiaiva 


I 


paxatpi 


u 


'Arpudai 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



53 



Examples for practice will be found in the Appendioc. 

5. Of the words of the masc. gender ending in rjc? the vocat. 
is a in those ending in Tr]g, and in several compound verbal" 
nouns, which simply add rjc to the consonant of the verb, as 
yewfiETpY^g, fivpoirujXrig, iraLdoTpijdiig, and also in the national 
names, nep(Tr]Q, I^kvOy^q. The others, which are the least in 
number by far, have rj in the vocat., especially patronymics in 
dr]g. (See above 'Ar^siSrjc-) 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The contracted nouns of this declension are all oKoiraBr) (§ 33, 5). They all 
contract the nomin. into one of the usual terminations a, ij, ag, and rjg, and are 
then declined regularly ; only those contracted into a, being originally j9urg, retain 
this vowel unchanged, and those in ag take the Doric gen. in a. (06s. IV. 4.) They 
are all known by the circumflex on the end-syllable. The resolved form is gene- 
rally disused, or has maintained itself in the Ionic dialect with some alteration, as 
for instance, 

1.) fjLvda — fiva, gen. fxvag, pi. jxvaX, &c. (Ion. fivsa.) 

2.) XeovTsa — XtovTrj, gen. rjg, &c. pi. nom. Xeovrai, ace. Xeovrag, 

(lonice Xeovrkij, Xeovreir],) lion's skin. 
3.) 'Epfisag — 'Epixfjg, gen. ov, pi. 'Epjxai, &c. {Epic, 'Epfxeiag.) 
4.) ISop'sag — also j3oppag, gen. (5oppa, &c. (The reduplication of the p is here 
merely an accidental peculiarity.) 
It is the same with 'aOjjvu, (originally -da, Ion. 'AQjjvair].) yV) (from TAA, Ion. 
yaXa, rarely y^a,) earth. — See about the contracted feminines of adjectives, § 60. 

II. Quantity. 1. The nom. in a, which has r]g in the gen., is always short. 

2. The nom. in a, which has ag in the gen., is mostly long, but also short in several 
words. The accent is here a safe guide, as (according to § 11. 4, 5,) not only all 
pi'ojyaroxytona and jyroperispomena, [a.s [idxaipa, jjLoXpa,) have of course a short a, 
but it is an invariable rule in this decl. that all oxytona and paroxytona, which have 
ag in the gen., are long in the nom., as arod, X^9^} Trerpa, rifispa, (ro(pia, &c., 
excepting only the numeral fxia, and the proper names Uvppa, Kippa. 

3. But as to accent a word correctly, the quantity of the end-syllable must be 
known, and as this cannot be reduced to plain rules, it will be sufficient at first to 
attend to the two following points : 

a.) Dissyllabic words in eia have the final a long, (xptio,) but the polysyllabic 
have the final a short : dXr]9eia, (from dXr]9i)g,) Mrjdtia, yXvKeia, (fern, of yXvKvg,) 
except the abstract substantives from verbs in ev(o, as dovXeia from dovXsvcj, 
(SacriXeia, {royal authority,) from (3a(TiXsvoj : but jSacriXeia, {queen,) from (BacrLXevg. 
See § 119. 06s. 6. 

b.) Substantives of three and more syllables, which a,refemaJe denominations, have 
the final a short : i^^aXvpia, dwreipa, "Oi-iirvia, &c., and the adjective TrorvLa is short, 
though all other adjectives /ew. of this kind have the final a long, as Kvpwg, Kvpia, &c. 

4. The vocat. a of the masculines in rjg is short ; of those in ag, long. — The final 
a of the dual is always long. 

5. The termination a g is long through the whole of this deck, and the ace. pi . 
distinguishes itself thereby from the third deck, in which it is short. The Dorians 
alone make the ace. pi. of the first decl. short. 

6. The ace. sing, in av conforms itself to the quantity of the nomin. 

III. Accent. 1. It is the characteristic of this decl. that i\\e gen. p>l. always has 
the accent on the end-syllable, let the word have the accent, where it may, iu the 



54 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

other cases : Mouffa Movcriov, uKavOa oKavOuiv. This is owing to this gen. being 
contracted from the ancient form in acov. (See Obs. TV. 3 ) Except, however, a.) 
the feminines of adjectives and participles, which are barytona in og, as ^evog, %kvrf 
— ^h'wv, aiTWQ, aiTia — alTl(i)v, TVTrrofievog, i) — TVTTTOfi'eviov : h.) the substantives 
■)(^p)]aTJ]g, iisurer, oi Irrjcriai, moiisoons, and d(pvTj, sort of fish. By means of this 
anomalous accent, the words xpj'/orwv, dcpvojv are distinguished from the same 
eases of the words xP^(^~og {useful) and d<pvi^Q (deformed). 

2. Substantives of this decl. retain the accent, Avhenever the general rules allow 
it, on the same syllable w-hich has the accent in the nomin. sing, (as, for instance, 
iiom'm. pi. <TO(piaL, roc. TroXTra.) Only the wc. decxTrora (from dsaTrSrrjg, master) is 
excepted ; for the Homeric forms, fitjrieTa, &c. are accented in the same way in 
the nom. in 06s. IV. 2. — The feminines of the adjectives in og throw the accent 
again, whenever the end-syllable allows it, where the masculine has it, as d^iog, 
fem. d^t'a, pi. d^ioi, d^iai. 

3. All accented genitives and datives (see Tijxrf) have the circumflex. See § 33, 7* 
IV. Dialects. 1. The Boric has in all terminations a long a instead of ij {rind, dg, 

q,, dv) : the Ionic commonly has rj instead of the long a, {ao^ir], rjg, y, rjv, ixdxaipa, 
Tig,y, av, 6 vetjviTjg, &c.) excepting the ficc.pZ. But Epic poets retain the a in 
9ed, Osdg, &c,, and in some proper names in ag, kiviiag. One of their peculiai'ities 
is the ri instead of the short a in Kv'iaat], "SkvXXt], commonly Kvlcraa, "EKvXXa ; and 
the reverse in the Homeric vocative vvfKpa. for vv[ji(pri. 

2. The ancient language had likewise masculines in a, which continued in some 
dialects (and consequently also in the Latin). Homer and the other Epic poets 
have still frequently iTnrora in the nomin. instead of iTrTror?;^, and nrjrUra, &c. 

3. The oldest form of the gen. sing. masc. is do, and of the geii. pi. of all termina- 
tions do)v. Hence we find in the Epic poets, 'Arpeidao, Moucrawv, &c. 

4. The Dorians contracted these genitives into a, as tov 'Arpsidd, rdv Movadv, 
(for Mowo-wv,) rS^v 'ArpeiSdv. This Doric ge7i. has continued in use in the sing, of 
a few words, especially of proper names ; as 

'Avvij3ag, (Annibal,) rov 'Avvi(3a, 
TOV dpvi9o9r)pa,fowler. 

5. The lonians on the contrary made of do — £w, (see § 27. 06s. 10,) but the w 
has no influence on the accent : TToXtrEw, (§ 11. 06s. 4,) and of ddjv — kujv, novakwv. 
— Hence the common language has retained this gen. sing, in the names of a few 
lonians, as GaXsw, Ascxtw, of Akaxrig and QaX^g. — When these terminations are 
preceded by a vowel, the f. may be dropped in verses ; as, for instance, evfiiieXi<jj 
from lijfiiieXirjg, Bopsoj from Bopitjg. 

6. Not only the ancient dialects, but also the Attic poets, and sometimes even the 
ancient Attic prose, (as in Plato,) have the old form of the dat. pi. aiai, aiaiv, (§33. 
06s. 3,) as Tinaiffi, Moixraiaiv, &c. (and the same in the second decl. okti, oiaiv.) — 
The Ionic dialect has y(nvy yai, and yg. But poets vary with the shorter form aig 
and yg. These Ionic forms are employed at times by the Attic dramatists. 

7. The Ionic accus. dsffirorea, tag, are heteroclites. § 56. 06s. 4. 

§ 35. — Second Declension. 

All the words in ov are of the neuter gender ; those In oq com- 
monly are of the masc. There are, however, many feminine in 
oc, independent of the names of persons, animals, trees, and 
towns, stated in § 32. See below a list of them in the Appendix, 
There are, besides, several substantives of the /em. gender in oq, 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



55 



which properly are adjectives, the substantive being omitted, as, 
17 EiaXeKTog, dialect, (sc. (fywvrj,) 77 ^idiuETpog, diameter, (sc. ypaju/uLri,) 
7] arofiog, atom, (sc. ouo-m,) 17 avvSpog, desert, 17 y^^^paog, and 
77 r/TTftpoCi continent, (sc. yujpa,) r] (TvyKXrjrog, (sc. jSouX?),) 
senate; and several others. 



>S'i??^. 


6, {discourse,) 


ri, {beech,) 


6, {people,) 


Q, {man,) 


roAfiff,) 


Nom. 


\6yoq 


(pr}yog 


SrijULog 


fivOpijJTTog 


avicov 


Gen. 


\6yov 


(pr]yoi) 


Er^fxov 


avOpu)7rov 


avKOV 


Dat. 


\6yM 


^rjyaj 


d{]fi(^ 


av6p(jj7r(i) 


CFVK(i) 


Ace. 


\6yov 


(jjr^yov 


^rijuov 


avBpojTrov 


(TVKOV 


Yoc. 


Xoye 


(prjye 


diifie 


avOpwTTS 


(JVKOV 


Dual. 












N.A.V. 


Aoyio 


(l>r)y(l) 


^{ijUCi) 


avQpwTTio 


GVKli) 


G.D. 

Plur. 
Nom. 


\6yoLV 


(priyolv 


dr]fxoiv 


avdp(jL)7roLv 


(JVKOLV 


\6yoL 


(priyol 


^rjfxoi 


avOpioTTOi 


avKa 


Gen. 


Aoywv 


(pYjytov 


§/j/U(i>V 


a.v9pwir(i)v 


(JVKWV 


Dat. 


XoyoiQ 


(piiyo7g 


driidoig 


avBpMTTOig 


(TVKOig 


Ace. 


Xoyovg 


(pr^yovg 


Si]iJ.ovg 


avOpwTTOvg 


(TVKa 


Voc. 


Xoyoi 


^rjyot 


^rijuioi 


avOpiOTTOL 


GVKa 



Examples for practice will be found in the Appendix. 

1. For the neuters in o like aXXo, Ik^vo, &c. which conform 
entirely with this declension, see the Pronouns, § 74. 

2. The vocative is sometimes like the nomin. partly for the 
sake of euphony, as in Oeoc? and partly without any such reason, 
especially in the Attic writers, as t5 (piXog. (Aristoph. Nub. 
1167.) 

3. Quantity and acceiit require no particular notice; the 
final a is short as in Latin ; the circumflex on the gen. and dat^ 
(see (pnyog) has been mentioned, § 33, 7. 

4. Dialects, a.) In the oldest language the gen. ov was pro- 
bably resolved into 00, whence what is called the Thessalian gen. 
in oLo in Epic and Lyric poets : Xoyoio, ^rjyoTo. 

b.) The Doric dialect has in the gen. w, and in the ace. pi. 
ijjg, as 6 voiuLog — gen. rw vofxw, ace. pi. rwc vofxMg : less fre- 
quently og in the ace. pi. Theocr. makes of 6 XvKog — riog 
XvKog instead of rovg XvKOvg. 

c.) The neut. pi. in a appears to have had the gen. in dujv in 
the oldest language. See Hesiod, Sc. 7. Hence the Homeric 
ed(i)v from to. EA, goods, possessions. (See the Anom. Ivg.) 

d.) See about the dat. pi. in oiai, oiaiv, {XoyoKri, ^rj^oTtrtv,) 



56 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



§ 34, Obs. IV. 6.— The Epic poets lengthen the gen, and dat, of 
the dual oiv to ouvi as, for instance^ "nnrouv, 

§ 36. — Contracted Nouns of the Second Declension. 
Several words in oog and oov, soq and eov, are generally con- 
tracted, (as oXowaOri, § 33, 5,) according to the rules stated 
§ 28, except that the a of the neut. gender absorbs the preceding 
f or o in the contraction, and becomes long : ocrria ogtcij airXoa 
airXa. (Compare below the adjectives in § 60.) 



Nom. 



Dat. 

Ace. 
Voc. 



6, (navigation,) 
Sing. I Plur. 
ttXoocj irXovg ttXool, ttXoT 
ttXowv, ttXCov 



Gen. ttXoov, ttXov 



ttXo 
irXoov, TT 



V> 



Xto 
Xovv 



irX 



oig 



7rXo£, TT/ 



wXooig, 
ttXoovq^ irXovg 
TrXot 

Dual 



TO, {bone,) 
Sing. \ Plur, 
OGTtov, oarovv oaTta, oora 
ocrrloi;, oarov oariiov, oaruiv 

I !' 

OGTi^OV, OCfTOVV OGTta, OGTa 

OGziov^ OGTOVV oaria^ ogtcl 



N.A. 
G.D. 



i 7rXott>, ttXw 

I TrXoofy, TrXoTy 

Ohs. For the compounds of the monosyllables tzXovq, vovq, &c., see § 60, 5. 



OGrioiV, OGTOIV. 



§ 37. — Attic Second Declension. 

The decl. of several words in wc? {masc. and /em.) and u)v, 
[neuter,) is usually appended to the second decl. by the name 
of the Attic second decl. It has in all its cases an w instead 
of the vowels and diphthongs of the common second decl., and 
an iota subscriptum where this declension has oi or (o. The 
vocat. is constantly like the nomin. Another deviation from the 
rule is, that the gen. sing, is an owytonon whenever the end- 
syllable is accentuated ; ew. gr. rov vuo, contrary to § 33, 7. 





o, 


(temple,) \\ 




Sing. 


Dual. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


vfwc 


V£a) 


VEOJ 


Gen. 


ViO) 


VEMV 


vswv 


Dat. 


ve(^ 




vet[)g 


Ace. 


veu)v 




vecjg 


Voc. 


v^iog 




V£W 



TO, (upper room,) 
Sing. Dual. 

dvojyetov 



avwyeii) 
avivyeit) 
avwyewv 
avwyeiov 



Plur. 

av(i)yeio 

dv(x)yeo)v 

dvwyscog 

dvu)y5(jj 

dvo)yiio 



' This regular wcat. is stated here for the sake of some proper names, as 
UctvOovg, vocat. UdvQov. The tocat. of dopv^oog, ovg, is in Aristophanes with the 
elision of the o, dopvU- (Compare Note to § 60, 5.) Else the vocat. of a proper 
name is of rare occurrence. 

2 See Buttmann's Complete Greek Grammar. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 57 

Obs. 1 . The expression Attic ded. must not be understood as if the Attics had 
usually declined the words in oq in this manner. It is rather a peculiar ancient 
decl. of a very limited number of words, a few of which follow likewise the common 
second decl., but with many variations ; as 6 XaoQ, {people,) vaog, — \i.o)Q, vewg, 6 
Xayojg, (Jiare,) Ion. 6 Xaywbg and Xayog. Others also follow the third decl. (as 
Miv(og, gen. M'lvu) and Mivojog) : others agree only in some parts now with this, 
and now with that decl. See about all these points § 56. Obs. 6. It is called the 
Attic decl. merely because, when there are two forms of this decl., that of which 
we treat here is generally peculiar to the Attics. 

Obs. 2. The words of this decl. have also a peculiar 

Acciis. in (jj, 
sometimes in addition to the regular one, (as top Xaywv and Xayu),) less frequently 
indeed in some instances, but exclusively (or nearly so) in others. This is the case 
with the names of towns, Kojg, Kkojg, Tkcog, "AOojg, and with rj scjg, (aurora, accus. 
TTjv €0),) which is the Attic foi'm of the Ionic i^coc, (of the contracted third decl.) 
The neuter (nomin. and accus.) of some adjectives is likewise in w, particularly 
dyrjpojg, (not subject to old age,) neut. dyr]p(v. 

Obs. 3. The gen. in wo of this decl. corresponds with the Epic gen. in oio, as 
Usreojg, gen. Uerswo (Homer). 

Obs. 4. See about the anomalous accent of this decl. § 11,8. 

§ 38. — Third Declension — Gender, 

1. The terminations of the words belonging to this decl. are 
too various to allow of any rule, and must be remembered indi- 
vidually. There are^ however^ a few which are pretty steady. 
See the Obs. 

2. The final g, on the whole^ is more the characteristic of 
the masc. and fem., and a short vowel in the end-syllable is 
generally the characteristic of the neut. gender. There are no 
neuters whatever in ^ and -ip. 

Obs. The terminations ojv, gen. ojvog and ovog, those in vg and ? and \p, fluctuate 
between the masc. and fem, gender, and are therefore the most difficult to be 
ranked under a strict rule. No regard is had in the exceptions to personal deno- 
minations like y firjTrjp, mother, r) dafiap, wife, the gender of which is a matter of 
coui'se (§ 32, 2). But where we say ' without exception/ there are no personal 
denominations of a different gender. 

Of the Masculine Gender are 
The words in tvg, as d opsvg, mule, d^(popsvg, amphora, without exception. 
The substantives which have vrog in the gen., 6 tsvojv, ovog, tendon, 6 odovg, ovrog, 

tooth, 6 indg, avrog, leatlier strap ; except the names of a few towns, § 32. 06s. 4. 2. 
Those in r}p, as ^woTjyp, except the fem. rj yaaTi)p, belly, rj Ki)p,fate, and with poets 

also Y] dr/p and rj aWrjp, and the contracted neuters, which see below. 
Those in wg, gen. wTog, as ysXcjg, laughter, 6 '^pojg, love. 

Those in rjv, as 6 fiijv, month, 6 avxn'^, neck ; except rj (pprjv, mind, rj, 6 %}?v, goose. 
The words 6 Trovg, 7rodbg,foot, 6 Knlg, Kvevbg, comb. 

Of the Feminine Gender are 
The words in w, as 7)x<^, without exception. 
Those in ag, which have adog in the gen., as r] Xafnrdg, torch, with the exception of 

a few adjectives generis communis, as Xoydg, aTropdg, § 63, 5. 



58 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Those in ig, as »/ iroXig, t) x«ptCj except the viasc. 6(pig, serpent, l^ig, uper, K6pig,hug, 

opX^Sy testicle, finpig, a measure of liquids, (gen. £(t)g,) Kig, wood-worm, Xlg, lion, 

(toe,) deXipig (Ivog) : and 6, t) opvig, {9og,) r), 6 riypig, {log,) r), 6 Olg, (ivbg,) heap, 

shore. 
Abstract substantives in rrjg, (Latin tas,) as i) fiiKporijg, ' littleness,' jo«m^as, with- 
out exception ; and the words t) %f«p, hand, r) cpOelp, louse, r) vavg, vessel, jy taOijg, 

iJTog, garment. 

Of the Neuter Gender are 
The words in a, t], i, v, as to auJ^ia, body, Kdpr},head, [xsXi, honey, dcrrv, city, without 

exception. 
Those which have a short end-syllable with a and o, without exception, as rb 

TtixoQ} TO ^Top, and the neuter adjectives in eg, ev, ov. 
Those in ap, as to rJTrap, to veKTap, with those contracted from -tap into T]p, as to 

tap, i]p, spring, to Ksap, Krjp, heart, to (XTeap, or/yp, suet, fat. Only 6 ^dp, 

starling, is excepted. 
The words in wp, which are not personal denominations, as to vdu)p,Tb TSKfiu)p,Sic., 

except 6 I'xf^pj (gore, matter, water of the blood,) and 6 dx(j^p {running soreness of 

the head). 
Those in ag, gen. aTog and aog, as to Tspag, arog, prodigy, Tb dsTrag, aog, goblet; 

except 6 Xdg, Xdog, stone, and 6 or Tb KPA2, Kparbg, head. 
There are no other neuters of this decl. beside to 7rvp,fire, to ^u)g, light, rb ovg, 

ear, to aralg, dough. 
The words in ag are generally masc. when the gen. is avTog—fem. when it is adog — 

and neut. when it is uTog and aog. 

§ 39. — Inflection of the Third Declension. 

1. We must distinguish in any declinable word the root and 
the termination of the case. The nom. sing, in the two first 
decl. has itself a particular termination ; but in the third it is 
added only in the following cases, as, 

Second decl. Xoy-oq, Xo-y-ov, \6y-M, 
Third decl. driQ, 6r]pog, 6r]pL 

2. But even in the third decl. the nomin. seldom is an abso- 
lutely unaltered root like Orip : in most instances the end- 
syllable of the root is changed, either by an addition, 

gen. [dorpv-og, {root (5oTpv,) nom. jSorpuc, 
or by a subtraction, 

gen. o-wjuar-oc, {root o-w/xar,) nom. <7wfjLa, 
or by a change, 

gen. kuvov-oq, {root Kavov,) nom. Kavwv *. 

^ The root of a word with regard to its inflection very frequently differs from its 
etymological root. To him who does not carefully attend to this, it may appear 
more natural, for instance, to consider (twju as the root, and a, uTog, as terminations. 
But part of this termination, the a at least, belongs to the formation of the word, 
and not to the decl., which here is the main point. It is true that in the first two 
decl. the original formation of the word and its declinable desinences often run one 
into the other, (as X6y-og, X6y~ov,) and cannot be distinctly and methodically sepa- 
rated. But in the third decl., as the word drip shows, the terminations of the other 
cases are distinct from the root, which is the point to be alone attended to here. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 59 

Obs. To be enabled to decline a word of the third dec), correctly, it is absolutely 
necessary to know the nomin. and one of the other cases, which commonly is the 
gen. But it is far easier to trace the nomln. in the gen. than Tice versa ; because the 
root, which here is of essential importance, is generally unaltered in the gen., 
but not so in the nomin. On consulting a dictionary, the gen. ought always 
to be carefully remembered along with the nomin. We far more frequently hit, in 
reading, on the gen., dat., &c., of an unknown word ; and to find this in the dic- 
tionary, we must be able to discover the nomin. in the gen., &c. Some directions 
for this purpose will be given. 

§40. 

1. The most general alterations which a root undergoes in 
the nomin.^ are 

1.) The addition of a c (as ^otqvq, Porpv-og, aXc, aX-oc)- 
2.) In words of the masc, and fern, the change of the e 

and o of the root into i] and w in the nomin. (as etKwv, 

UKOv-og, aXr}9rig, aXr]Oi-og.) 

2. To apply this correctly, we must distinguish two princi- 
pal caseSj viz. whether there be before the termination of the 
casus either, 1. a consonant, or, 2. a voiveL 

§41. 

1. Whenever the termination of the casus is preceded by a 
consonant, and the nomin. takes the g, it first follows of course 
from the general rule, that this g coalesces with the letters y, 
K, x? aiid /3, TT, 0, and becomes £ and \p, as 

Koga^ KogaK-og, ovv^ 6vv)(^og, 
&\py wir-og, \aXv\p xa.Xvf5-og. 

2. These nomin. in ? and ^ never alter the £ and o of the 
7'oot, {(pXlip, 0X£/3oc, (^Xo| (pXoyogy Ai^io^ AlOloirog,) excepting 
only T) aXw7rr]S, aXw-ir^Kog. 

3. But w^hen the letter immediately before the termination 
is S or r or 6, it disappears, according to the general rule, be- 
fore the g, as 

Xajuiirag XaiuLiraBog, AdjpXg Aivpi^og, JcrjXtc Kr^XlEog, 

opvLg opvldog, KOpvg KopvOog, rj Uapvy^g HapvriOog, 

ripag riparog, xapig xap^LTog. 

Hereto must be added, that if the letter r is preceded by k, k is, 

after having cast offr, changed into 5; vv^ vvKTog, ava^ avaKTog, 

4. The letters v and vr also disappear before the c, but the 

^ With regard to all the following examples the learner must be informed that 
the statement (SorpvQ (iorpv-og, for instance, means that * the root jSorpv, wliich 
results from the gen. (56Tpv-og, becomes jSoTpvg in the nomin.' 



CO A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

short vowel is then lengthened in the way stated § 25, 4. (with 

VT it is constantly the case, with v generally,) as 

yiyag ylyavTog, xapUig )(^apiEVTog, oBovg o^ovrog, 
^fA^U? {^ong I,) §fA</)Tvoc S ^opKvg ^opKvvog, 
fieXag jusXavog, Kve^g Kvevog ^. 

5. But when the yiomin. does not take the g, it is only v or q, 
of all the consonants, which is left with the nomin. (Or)p Or]p-og, 
aiMv altov-og). Besides these, there are only such roots as end 
in r, which frequently take no g, in which case the r must be 
cast ofF^ e^. gr, 

aCjfia aojfxaT-og, Sevoi^ajv /E?£vo^t5vr-oc« 
But in all instances where the nomiru ends in v or p, the e and 
o in the masc. and fern, are changed into r] and w : 

XifjLrjv \tiJiiv-og, pr)T(i)p prjTOp-og, yeptjjv yipovTog. 

6. A few neuters, which have arog in the ffen., take an p in- 
stead of g in the nomin. : as riirap riTrar-og, (Compare § 16. 
Obs. 1. f.) 

7. The usual instances, where the termination of the casus 
is preceded by a consonant, are accordingly the following : 

the ffen. in i ^^^' '^^^^' f ^ | of the nomin. in I ^ ^t^^i^f*^ 

5, 55 55 ^0^5 Tog, 6og of the nomin. in ^, as Xa/xiragy Xqjul- 

TTci^og, 8lc. 
but especially 

Ta {(jwfjiay UTog) 

arog of the nomin. in < ac {ripag, arog) 

\ap {^irap, arog) 

,5 5, ., vocofthe/^omm.in|%(^"^^r^) 

( C [pic:, pivog) 

but especially 
^ avog and ovpc of the nomin. in rjv and wy, 

{Xifii^v Xi/Jiivogj bIkwv SLKOvog) : 

fag, eig, ovg, vg, 
(0ac i>avrog, Ojlg Bivrog,) 
[oovg oovTog, (pvg ^vvTog,) 
(jjv [yipwV) ovTog) : 

^ Dictionaries and grammars also state the nom. of those which have ivoq in the 
gen. as being iv, butin the most ancient writers we always find dtXfig, aKrig, pig, &c. 

2 There is only tig to be added, which see below, § 70. 

3 Hence ydXa, yaXuKTog, (see the Anom.) may thus be accounted for ; in the 
same manner the vocat. dva (of dvaK dvuKTog), and yvvai (of the antiquated form 
rrNAI^;, see Anom. yvvi],) since all these forms must, as they adopt no <7, cast off 
their consonants in the final syllable. § 4, 5. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 61 

the gen. in ^oq of the nomin. in p {Orip} 0>?jo6c? &c.) : 
bat especially 
« }} }> ^pog and opoQ of the nomin. in rjp and wp, 

{ald^p aidipOQ, p{]T(i)p p{]TOpog,) 
^ and of two neuters in op, 

aop, (sword,) and rirop (breast), 
8. The following isolated instances are better remembered 
each separately : 

6, rii aXg aXog, salt, sea. 
TO fisXi juiXiTog^ honey ; ro Kapr^ Kapr^rog, head, 
ri vv^ vvKTog, night ; 6 civa^ avaKTog, king, 
J] cafxap BajuapTog, wife. 
6 TTOvg TTO^og, foot. 
and some others stated in the list of Anomalous words^ § 58^ 
especially yaXa, Oefiig, juaprvg, ovg, X^'V* 

Obs. I. The quantity of the penultimate syllable of the gen., whenever owing to 
a, I, V, is not easily discovered, and can be determined only by authorities, as is that 
of the nominatives of other words ; see the list of the words where it is long, in the 
j^ppendix, p. 458. But it may be laid down as a rule that the said syllable is long 
in all the substantives which have in the gen. 

avog, ivog, vvoq, 
as, for instance, Ilax' Jldvog, iraiav Tcaiavoc, pig plvbg, deXcplg deXiplvog, fxoavv 
IxoGvvog. 

Obs. 2. The end-syllables of the nomin., the quantity of which is not determined 
above, generally are like the penultimate of the gen. Hence, (with a few exceptions 
in poets,) oping -lOog, KT]\ig, (long i,) Idog, iraiav, (long a,) avog. And in similar 
instances the length must be observed in pronunciation before ^, \p : the accent 
frequently shows it, as Owpa^ -aKog, {Ion. Owpjj? -rjKog,) in (poivi^ -~iKog, KrjpvK, -vkoq 
(with later writei'S (polvi^, fciypv^') : on the contrary, avXa^ -aicog, &c. 

Obs. 3. All monosyllabic nomin., excepting the pronoun rig, are long : hence Trvp 
TTvpog. 

Obs. 4. The few words which have v6og in the gen. throw off only the 9 before 
the g of the nomin., and retain, contrary to the usual practice of the Greek language, 
the V, as 'i\pivg,"i\}xivQog, {earth-icorm,) Tipvvg, TipvvOog (§ 25. 06s. 2). 

Obs. 5. If there be an r] or o before the termination eig, evrog, the contraction 
generally takes place ; as rt/^ jyetg rt|U 17? vrog, contracted rifxyg^ TifxrjvTog, [xeXiToeig 
osvTog, contr. ixeXiTovg -ouvrog. It is the same with the names of towns in ovg, 
ovvTog, as 'Orrovg, &c. 

Obs. 6. The contractions which take place in the participles of the contracted 
conjugation (0tXwi/ (piXovvrog, TifiC)v nixaivrog, &c.) are best learned in the para- 
digms of this conjugation. We only observe that such proper names as 'iH^ievotpuiv, 
wvTog, originate in this contraction. 

Obs. 7. Another contraction takes place when the termination ap is preceded by 
£, as Kkap Kjjp, {heart,) gen. Ksapog Krjpog, and also tap ijp, {sjyring,) of which word we 
have in prose the resolved form in the nomin., and in the gen. and dat. the con- 
tracted form (tap, ijpog). The same contraction occurs in some which have a r in 

* 11. I. 605, according to Wolffs reading, which is alone correct. 



G.2 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

the gen., but in these the accent does not conform to the rules of contraction, and 
takes a more convenient place, thus : ortap (rrlarot:, contracted <TTrjp aTrjTbg,{suet,) 
0p£«p (ppsoTog (pp7]TbQ, {well,) SeXea^), gen. dsXearog deXrjTog, {bait, decoy,) Qpri'i^, 
ep(}k, Opy^, gen. epi]TKog, Opc^Kog, OpyKog. Compare § 28. Obs. 10, with § 43. Obs. 4. 

§42. 

1. Those words which have a vowel before the termination 
of the casus, (or, according to § 28, 1, og purum in the gen.) 
take almost all an c in the nomin., excepting only a few neuters 
in I and v, and feminines in w. 

2. And as, according to § 38. Obs., neuters only can end in 
syllables, which are short through c and o, the masc. and fern. 
make of the a and o of their other casus their nominatives in ?j 
or €u, (i) or ou. 

3. Thus arises in particular 

the gen. in aog of the neuters in ag, {aiXag aiXaog,) 
„ „ „ log and vog of the nomin. in ig, i, and vg, v, 

(jcic Kiog, SaKpv, vog,) 
„ 5, „ (i)og of the nomin. in wg, {Oijbg, Oii)og,) 

( the nomin. in ovg, {j^ovg, /3ooCj) 
„ „ „ oog of < the fern, in w and cog, 

( WX^J ^^^^ atSwCj oog,) 
fthe nomin. in ij^ and eg, 
„ „ „ £0C (ewe) of ^ (aAr}0)7C, neut. aXriOlg, gen. iog,) 
(^the m«5C. in evg, {iTTTrtvgf 'nnruog.,) 
and as an isolated instance, 

17 ypavg ypabg, old woman. 
With regard to vavg, see the Anom, 

4. But the gen. in 

iog and twc 
proceed also from the change of the vowel, 

1.) in the numerous neuters in oc, as ruxog reix^og, 
2.) in most of the nomin. in ig and i, and some in vg and v, 
as iroXig TroXeojg, clgtv aareog. 



1 



Obs. 1. A more detailed account of this and of the gen. in iog will be found in the 
contracted Declension, to which all these end-syllables are more or less subject. 

Obs. 2. The gen. in ijog belongs to the dialects ; see below about the words in avg 
and evg, and about TroXig, § 50-52. See also Anom. "Aprjg, svg, TrpsajSvg, viog, and 
a few contracted ones. § 53. Obs. 5. 

Obs. 3. In all these words (except only ypcibg) the vowels a, t, v, before the end- 
syllable of the gen. are short ; hence the polysyllabic nominatives in ag, ig, vg, are 
likewise short. But the monosyllabic nominatives, adhering to the rule of the 
preceding §, are constantly long ; as {xvg fxvog. The subst. oxytona in vg (o^pitg, 
ix^vg) are generally long in the nom. and accus. (vv.) 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



63 



§43. 

The following examples may serve in the main for all in- 
stances of the usual decl. 



' 


6^ (ivild 


6, {age,) 


6, r], {good or 


6, {lion,) 


6, {giant,) 


Sing. 


beast,) 




evil spirit,) 






Nom. 


Oi)p^ 


alcov 


Eaipiov 


Xe(i)V 


jiyFig 


Gen. 


uripoQ 


altJvog 


^aipovog 


XtovTog 


yiyavrog 


Dat. 


Or] pi 


alujvL 


^aijLiovL 


Xeovtl 


yiyavTL 


Ace. 


uripa 


alojva 


caiiuova 


Xeovtu 


yiyavra 


Voc. 


6r]p 


alujv 


^aipov 


Xeov 


yiyav 


Dual 












N.A.V. 


OrjOE 


aliovs 


^aipove 


Xeovte 


yiyavTE 


G.D. 


OripoXv 


alivvoLV 


SaipovoLv 


Xeovtolv 


yiyavTOLv 


Plur. 












Nom. 


Oiipeg 


alCovEg 


caipoveg 


XEOVTEg 


yiyavTEg 


Gen. 


Oripwv 


aliLvujv 


daifjioviov 


Xeovtijjv 


yiy avT(i)V 


Dat. 


6r]p(jL{v) 


alw(7i{v) 


daLpocn{v) 


XiiOV(JL{v) 


yiyaGi{v) 


Ace. 


OTipag 


altovag 


^aipovag 


Xiovrag 


yiyavrag 


Voc. 


Oiipeg 


alwvEg 


daipoveg 


XiovTEg 


yiyavTEg 




6, {raven), 


6, 7], {child,) 


6, {Jackal,) 


6, {ivood- 


TO, {thing,) 


Sing. 








ivorm,) 




Nom. 


Kopa^ 


TTalg 


ucbg 


Kig 


Trpayjua 


Gen. 


KopaKog 


TTaiSog 


Ocoog 


Kibg 


TTpayparog 


Dat. 


KopaKL 


TrafSt 


OidI 


A. 

KIL 


TTpaypaTL 


Ace. 


KopaKa 


Tralda 


OoJa 


kIv 


TTpaypa 


Voc. 
Dual 
N.A.V. 


Kopa^ 


Trot 


6(hg 


Klg 


Trpdypa 


KOpaKe 


TTalde 


Owe 


KIE 


irpayjiaTE 


G.D. 


KOpaKOLV 


TraiSoTv 


Oojolv 


KiOiV 


TTpayfxaroLv 


Plur. 












Nom. 


KopaKig 


7raT^£C 


OwEg 


KiEg 


IT pay para 


Gen. 


KopaKiov 


Traidujv 


Oojwv 


klQ}v 


TrpaypaTOJv 


Dat. 


/copa$i(v) 


7raim{v) 


6it)(yl{v) 


Ki(Ji{v) 


TTpaypa(7i{v) 


Ace. 


KOpaKag 


irdlhag 


Oioag 


Kiag 


Trpdypara 


Voc. 


KopaKEg 


TratSeg 


OiOEg 


KiEg 


IT pay para 



Examples for practice will be found in the Appendix, 

1. These examples are abundantly sufficient; for as soon as 
the nomin. and gen. of a word are known from the preceding 
§§ and the dictionary, a little reflection readily shows, for 
instance, how^ all the words in ^ and i// are declined after /copa^, 
— those which have Soc? Oog, and rog, in the gen. after iraXg 



6-i A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

TTttiSoc, — and x*^^ X*^^^^? iroifxriv iroiixtvoQ, after ^aifnov ^aifio- 
voQf — but b^ovQ odovTog, and even 9e\g OivTog, after Xtwv Xloy- 
Tog, and lastly rV«p iwarog after Trpay/xa aroc. But there are 
still some directions requisite concerning the accus. and voc. 
sing, and the dat. pi. ; see the following §§, and about the yen. 
in wg, §§ 51^ 52. 

2. Dialects. Independently of what will be stated in the 
following §§, we merely observe here, 1.) that the end-syllable 
oLv of the dual is lengthened by Epic poets^ just as in the 
second decl., as tto^ouv for ttoSoTv : 2.) that the Ionic dialect 
sometimes lengthens the gen. pL, when it has the circumflex, 
by adding an c, as, for instance, Herod. x>?v£wv for x»?vwv, from 
Xnv x>]i^oc. 

3. Quantity. The terminations of casus in «, a, and ag, are 
constantly short in the third decl. (compare Obs. II. 5. to the 
first decl., and below, in § 52, the exceptions to the words in 
Evg.) — With regard to the quantity of the final syllable of the 
nomin. and of the penultimate of the gen.^ see the Obs. to the 
preceding §§. 

4. Accent. The principal rules in this respect are, that : 

1.) in dissyllabic and polysyllabic words the accent con- 
tinues, as long as its nature allovfs it, on the same syllable 
where it is in the nomin. (See above, Ko^a^^ alwv.) 

2.) Monosyllabic words throw the accent in the gen. and dat. 
of the three numbers on the termination of the casus. On the 
termination wv it becomes, conformably to § 33. Obs. 7, a cir- 
cumflex. (See above, Qrip^ Kig.) 

3.) The nomin., accus., and vocat., on the contrary, never have 
the accent on the termination of a casus \ 
From the second rule are excepted, 

a.) the participles, as Qug Oivrog, wv ovrog, &c. 

b.) the pi. of the adj. irag, irav, {iravTog, Travri,) gen. pL 

TravTwv, dat. iraaLv : 
c.) some which are become monosyllables by contractions, 
\aag \ag, gen. \aog, (see below the Anom.) cap ^^, 
Kiap Krip,gen. ^pog, Kripog : but not all, see above, § 41. 
Obs. 7, and below, olg, § 50. Obs. 6. 
d.) the gen. pi. and dual of the following nine words : iralg, 

^ It ought, however, to be remembered, that in this decl. the final syllable of the 
word {<ju)T-rip) is constantly different from the final syllable of the casus, (awrnp-a,) 
§39,1. '^ ^ ^ 



ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 65 

Owg, 6 djLLibg, (slave,) 6 Tpcbg, {Trojan,) rb (piog, (light,) 
7] (pwg, (burn,) ri Sag, (torch,) to KPAS, (head,) and of 
the anomalous to ovg, (ear,) 6 arjg (moth) : hence irai- 
owv, Oa)ii)v, Sjid)wv, Tpujiov, <p(jjTix)v, (ptodwv, Saowv^ 
KpaT(jjv, lOTtov, aitov, and in the dual TraiEoiv, &c.^ 
e.) the lengthened Epic dat. pi. in Eat, eggi, § 46. Obs, 

§ 44. — Of the Accusative Singular. 

1. The principal termination of the accus. in this decl. is a : 
but the words in tg, vg, avg, ovg, have 

the accus. in v, 
changing simply the g of the nomin. into v, as in the other de- 
clensions^ and retaining the quantity. This is the only form 
in those words which have a vowel before the termination of 
the casus, as jSovg, (gen. (5oog,)—[5ovv,Spvg, (Spvog,) — dpvv, and 
the same with IxOvv, ttoXlv, ypavv, &c. 

2. But those which have an additional consonant in the gen.,- 
have always a when the last syllable of the nomin. is accented, 
(as iX-nrtg, (dog — IXiriEa, wovg, Trodog—iroSa.) When the last syl- 
lable of the nomin, is unaccented, they generally take v, but 
frequently also a, as 'ipig, iSog — epiv and ipiSa, Kopvg, vOog — KOpvv 
and KopvOa, EveXTTig, idog — eveXirLv and eviXirLda, iroXvirovg, odog 
— TroXvTTovv and TroXvTroSa. 

Obs. 1. Adag, contr. \dg (stone), gen. {Xdaog) Xaog, has also Xdav, contr. Xdv, in 
tlie accus. See likewise the Anom. kXeIq, and § 49. 06s. 7- to the words in w and ooq. 

Obs. 2. Poets, but not Attic poets, have also retained of the ancient language 
(56a for (3ovv, evpia for ivgvv, &c. 

§ 45. — Of the Vocative. 

1. It frequently occurs in this third decl. that a word might 
have a distinct vocat., but commonly, and with Attic writers in 
particular, its vocat. is the same with the nomin. We shall 
state the rules by which some end-syllables may form a dis- 
tinct vocat., and leave it to the student to notice the words in 
which it really is distinct. 

2. The end-syllables ^vg, ig, vg, and the words TraTc, ypavg, (5ovg, 
throw their g off, and those in evg take the circumflex, (§11, 3.) 

2 The accentuation of several of these words is still a vestige of a contraction from 
the older forms, Trd'ig, <pong, daig, KPAA2, ovag : in the others it proceeds fx'om the 
wish to distinguish them from the gen. of the words at Tpojcd, dficjai, 9u)r], {penalty,) 
6 i^iog, (jnan,) which have the same sound. 

F 



66 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

as f3a(n\evQ, vocat. o) (^aaiXsv — Tlapi, Awpi^ TriOv, ri^v^ &c. — iraT, 
ypav, j3ov. 

3. Those in ag and eiq, before whose c an v has been dropped^ 
do the same ; but then they commonly resume the v, as for in- 
stance raXag, avog, w rciXavy — Maq,avToq, mAIqv, — \apiug,evTog, 
u) x«P'^i^' Yet several names in ac,-^ avTog, barely take the long 
a, as "ArXag, avrog. 

4. The words of which the nomin, ends in rj or w, merely 
shorten this vowel in the vocat. ; but in general only when the 
other casus also have e or o, see above daijuMv and Xiwv : it is the 
same with /x?/rrjp, fpoc^ a> fJiriTep, — prjrwp, opog^ & prjrop, — 
^dJKpciTYig, eog, t5 ^(VKpareg. 

5. The feminines in w and wg make the vocat. in oT^ (§ 11, 3.) 
as SttTT^w^ t5 SaTT^oT, — ii(og, (J 'Hot. 

Ohs. 1. From the rule 4. are excepted those which have the accent on the end- 
syllable ; as, TTOinrjv, bvoq, w Tvoifjitjv {shepherd)', but only substantives, not adjectives 
(as for instance, w K{kaivi<p'EQ). These three, Trdrtp, dvep, ddep, from Trar^p, dvijp, 
da^p (husband's brother), gen, epog, also follow the general rule, but remove the accent. 

Obs. 2. The words which retain the long vowel in the other cases, continue 
unchanged in the vocat. : hence & UXdrcjv {gen. covog), S) 'Stvocpiov {wvtoq), <!» irjrrjp 
{rjpog), u) Kpdrrjg {rjTog). There are but three among them which shorten the vowel 
in the vocat. : 'AttoWojv, covog, — UoaeiSwv, oovog, — (xwri^p, ripog, {deliverer,) vocat. 5) 
"AtcoXKov, Hiiyti^ov, aojTtp, and they likewise throw the accent back. 

Obs. 3, When the accent is in the noniin. on the penultimate syllable, it may be 
moved further back in the vocat. (§ 12, 2. a.) on shortening the final syllable ; but 
this is done only in some words (0wyarfp, KoKodaifiov, 'So)KpaTig,"A7roWov),not 
in others, as for instance, %opc£j/, datcppov, HaXalixov. Compare § 41, 5. note 3. 

Obs. 4. It may easily be supposed, that the names of objects, which usually are 
not apostrophised, when once the case occurs, retain preferably the form of the 
nomin., as w ■ttovq, w TroXig, and such like. But this is also frequently done, espe- 
cially by Attic writers, with such words and names as Kp'scov, Mag, rdXag, (jioTrjp, 
and such like. 

Obs. 5. The word dva^ (k^ng) has, on petitioning a divinity, a peculiar vocat., 
w dva, {crasis, wva,) else it is w dva%{ihva%). 

§ 46. — Of the Dative Plural. 

1. When the termination aiv, at, of the dat. pi. is preceded 
by a consonant, the same general rules are observed (§ 41.) as 
with the g of the nomin. See above KopaE,, iraXc, alcjv, likewise 
"Apa'p"Apa(5og — ''Apa-^pLv, i^iirap rJTraroc — riTraaiv, &c. 

2. If in these instances the vowel of the oblique casus differs 
from the vowel of the nomin., it continues so in the dat. pi. {^ai- 
fiwV}Ovog,^ai/jioai, — 7rovg,7rodbg, woaiv, — a\u)TTY}^,EKog, aXfoire^tv.) 
But, if VT is dropped, the vowel is, according to § 25, 4. neces- 
sarily lengthened ; see above Xiwv, yijag: hence also odovg, ovTog, 



DATIVE PLURAL. 67 

6dov(TL, — TVTTHg, ivTog, TVTTHaiv. But when the v alone is dropped, 
the vowel remains short, Kralg, KTEvog, KTEdiv, 

Obs. 1. The adjectives (not the participles) in eig, evrog, have merely s, as <p(ovr]Hg, 
evTOQ, (p(i)vr]e(7i,v. 

3. When there is a vowel immediately before the end-syl- 
lable mv, ai, consequently when there is og purum in the ffen., 
the vowel remains unchanged as in the other oblique casus, 
{aXr]9rigi ^og, a\r}9i(n, — TeT^og, ^og, Tei^^Ecri, — ^pvgy dpvog, Spucriv.) 
But when the nomin. sing, has a diphthong, the dat. pi, like- 
wise has the diphthong ; as 

j3acnXevg, Icjg, . . . j^aaiXEVdL 

ypavg, jpaog, . . . ypavcii 

j3ovg, l3obg, .... f3ov(Tiv. 
Obs. 2. The old and Epic language has in all words instead 'of (n{v), -e(T(n{v)^ 
more rarely -s(jl{v), and as this termination begins with a vowel, it is appended 
exactly like that of the other casus, as Lx9v~e<r(n, Kopdic€<X(TL, Traidecrcn, (Sosacn, /Sacrt- 
XssacFiv, avoLRTtrn. In monosyllabic words this form of the dat. i-etains the accent on 
the first syllable ; as Traldeaaiv, 'Ivscrc, from Traig, i'g. See the dat. in acre in the follow- 
ing §, and other exceptions below in the words in evg, and in the Anom. vVoq and 

§ 47. — Syncope of some words in -np, 

1. Some words in rjp, gen. tpog, drop the e in the gen. and dat. 
sing, and in the dat. pi., and introduce an a after the p instead 
of the £ in the dat. pi, only, as Trarrip {father). 

Gen. [iraTipog,) Trarpog, dat. {iraripL,) Trarpt, accus. Traripa, 

VOCat. TTCLTEp. 

Dual. N. A. iraripE, G. D. iraripoLV. 

PI. irarepeg, gen. TraTtpwv, dat. iraTpacn, accus. Traripag, 

2. The following (with some anomalies in the accent) are 
declined in the same way : 

finTTfip, (^riTipog,) fivrpog, fxnTp\, firiTspa, /irirsp, {mother,) 
7] yaarrip, {yaarepog,) yaarpog, yaaTpt, yaaripa, yatTTrjp, 

{belly, stomach,) 
Ovyarrjpi {dvyaripog,) Bvyarphg, rpX, repa, Bvyarsp, 

{daughter,) 
Ar}i.ir}Tr}p, {Arj/jirjTEpog.) ArijULrjTpog, Ari/ur]rpt {Ceres) : 
the last of which also makes its accus. Ai]^nTpa according to 
this rule : Voc. Ai^/xrjTep. See about avrip the Anom. 

Obs. 1. Poets sometimes neglect this syncope, and say, for instance, Trarepog, 
Ouyarkpeddi, and sometimes employ it whete it usually does not occur, as Ovyarpegf 
OvyaTpHJv, &c., TrarpaJv (Homer). 

Obs. 2. The accent of these forms is very anomalous : 1.) in the full form, (ex- 
cepting the compound Arjixr^Trjp,) it always is on the e, and hence is removed on it in 

f2 



68 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



firjTtjp, QvyctTrjp : 2.) after the 6 has been thrown out of most of the^^w. and dat. 
the accent goes over to the termination, {jj.r]TpbQ,9vyaTpa)v, dvyaTpdai,) which else 
occurs only in words with a monosyllabic nomin. : 3.) Arjixrjrijp on the contrary 
di'aws the accent back in all syncopated forms ^Aijixrjrpog, &c., but Ovydrrjo, when it is 
syncopated by poets, only in the nomin. and accus. {Qvyarpa, Ovyarpeg, OvyarpaQ.) 

Obs. 3. Taarrip has in the dat. pi. yaarpdcnv and yacxrrjpaiv. Even darfip^ ^pog, 
(star,) which else is not syncopated, has yet darpdciv. 

§48. — Contracted Declension. 

1. There are but few of the words^ which have og purum in 
the gen., which are not contracted in some of their forms^ 
though it is by no means the case in all the forms to which the 
contraction might apply in conformity to the general rules. 

2. Their contraction indeed differs in some respects from the 
general rules ; a deviation of this kind is stated in the follow- 
ing rule : — 

The contracted accus. pL of the third decl. is constantly 
like the contracted nomin. pi. 

Ohs. 1. Thus, for instance, dXijOhg, (36eg, are regularly contracted dXrjOeig, (3ovg, 
and the contraction of the accus. d\r]dkag^ (Soag, is, contrary to the general rules, 
exactly the same, even in words which commonly are not contracted in the nomin. 
pi. See the only exception from this rule § 53, 2. 

Ohs. 2. Tiiere can be, properly speaking, no oKoiraB^ (§ 33, 5.) in this decl., 
because the nomin. has no particular end-syllable like the other casus. But the 
termination of the nomin. may be pure of itself, and therefoi'e subject to contraction. 
This must then be considered as occurring in the root, and not in the decl. {Ksap 
Ktjp, 'OTToug 'Orrovg,) and when the gen., which is contracted in the same way, is 
known, (fciyp, Ki]pog, 'OTrovg, ovvTog,) the rest of the decl. proceeds as usual. Hence 
this contraction has already been noticed above, § 41. Obs. 5-7. It is only when 
both the terminations of the word and the casus are pure, and afford a double capa- 
bility of being contracted, that it cannot be separated from the usual contraction ; 
see below, § 53, 3. 

Examples for the practice of the following principal instances of contraction 
are given in the Appendix. 

§49. 
The words in rig and eg, gen. eog, (which properly are all 
adjectives^) the neuters in og, gen. aog, and the fem. in to and 
cjg, gen. oog, are contracted in all the casus in which two vowels 
meet. 

TO, {a wall,) 7], [an echo,) 

reix^og, reixovg rixoog rixovg 

Ttixpg VXoa, r)X(^ 



Sing. 

Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 



ri, {a trireme,) 
rpiriprjg 

rpn7p£oc, rpirjpovg 
Tpir)pti.) TpirjpEt 
Tpi7]psa, rpiiip-q 
Tpirjpeg 



CONTRACTED DECLENSION, 



69 



Dual, 

N.A.V, 

G. D. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 



rpir}piOLV^ TpirjpoTv 

Tpiiipzeg, TpiripeLQ 
TpLripiwv^ rpirjpojv 
Tpn]pe<7L{v) 
TpLi]peaQy rpiripeig 
TpL{]p£eQ, Tpi7]pug 



TEIX^OLV, TeiXOlv 

rdxsa, THXn ^ 

Td\E(n{v) 



Second decl. 



r/XOt 
Second decl. 



No substantives^ strictly so called, terminate in r]Q, gen. eoq ; 
and with rpu^prig the word vavg is to be understood. Besides 
the adjectives, there are many proper names ending in -qg, gen. 
£og, as Aiofirjdrjg, and some in KpaTr]g, as Swjcjoarrjc^ the decl. of 
which follows that of Tpi{]pr]g, except that they frequently form 
their accus. after the first decl. in rjv. (See § 56. Obs. 4.) 

The neuter adj. in e^, excepting this termination, are declined 
exactly like the neuters in og : thus (from aXrtOrig) neut. aXridlgy 
pi. Ta a\r]dtay a.Xr]9ri. 

Obs. 1, The feminines in w and wg are used mei-ely in the sing. The dual and 
2)1., when needed, follow the second decl. See about the mase. ijpojg the Anom. 

Obs. 2. The dual in ij, for instance, Aristoph. Thesin. 282. w Tvt^iKaXkri QsafiofSpojj 
deviates from the general rule, as it is a contraction from te (see § 28, 3). The 
Attics also employed the resolved form ; as toj ykvee, Plato Polit. 

Obs. 3. The Attic writers never neglect the contraction in these words, except in 
the gen. pi. We generally find in several of those writers dvO'nov, KepSsoju, rpijjplwr, 
&c. and in the gen. of "Api]Q, {3Iars,)"Apeog. The resolved forms of the words in oj 
and (hg are no longer met with even in the Ionic dialect. 

Obs. 4. Several compound adj. paroxytona in j]g, derived from J]Qog, continue also 
paroxytona in the gen. pi. ; as avvfjOrjg, tu>v avvriOojv, {resolved <Tvvr]9ku)v,) avrdpKrigf 
avTapKOJV, &c. Compare the adverbs in wg, § 115. Obs. 1. Even the gen. pi. rpitjpojv, 
which is accented above according to the rule, is commonly accented Tpirjpwv, as 
coming from the adj. Tpirjprjg. 

Obs. 5. With regard to the deviating contractions of the words which have an 
additional vowel before the usual contraction, see below, § 53. 

Obs. 6. The Dorians and Epic poets contract the gen. eog into tvg, according to 
§ 28. Obs. 5. as rov ykvevg from to y'lvog. 

Obs. 7. The accent of the accus. of the words in w (rj}v r^xw) is contrary to the 
rule of § 28. Obs. 9. Those in o)g, however, (and there are but two, r}wg and aidujg,) 
are correctly accented r7)f r/Sa, 770). The Ionic dialect frequently has the accus. of 
both in ovvj as 'Iw 'lovv, rj^g ijovv. 



§50. 

All other words which have og purum and which are con- 
tracted, admit the contraction only in the nom. accus. and vocat, 
pi., and partly in the dat. sing. We first notice those in vg, gen, 
vogy and those in ig, when in the Ionic and Doric dialect they 



70 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



have lOQ in the (/en., and to these we annex the decl. of (5ovg and 
ypavg, the similarity of which with those words terminating in 
vg and tg will be best seen by their being placed next each 
other. 



Sing, 


7], [a fish;) 


T}, {a city,) 


6, 7], [an 000, 
or a cow,) 


17, {an old 
woman,) 


Nom. 


IxOvg 


TToXig 


(5ovg 


ypavg 


Gen. 


IxOvog 


TToXiog 


Boog 


ypaog 


Dat. 


l\QvL 


TToAtt, TToXl^ 


(5o\ 


ypa\ 


Ace. 


IxOvv 


TToXlV 


j3ovv 


ypavv 


Voc. 


ixOv 


ttoXl 


fiov 


ypav 


Dual. 










N.A. 


IxOve 


TToXlE 


156e 


ypas 


G.D. 


IxOvoiv 


TToXiOlV 


/Sooty 


ypaoiv 


Plur. 










Nom. 


IxOveg, Ix^vg 


TToXieg, TToXlg 


j56eg,f5oi)g 


ypa^g.ypavg 


Gen. 


lxOv(i)v 


TToXiwV 


j3oCjv 


ypauw 


Dat. 


lxOi>cn(v) 


TToXicniv) 


/3ou(7i(v) 


ypav(n(v) 


Ace. 


LxOvag, IxOvg 


TToXiag, TToXlg 


j36ag,Povg 


ypaag,ypavg 


Voc. 


IxOveg, IxOvg 


TToXug, TToXlg 


/3ofc,/3ouc 


ypaEg,ypavg 



The contraction of ypaeg and ypaag into ypavg deserves notice, 
as uncommon. (The Ion. dialect has yp-nvg, yp-nog^ &c. without 
any contraction.) See about vavg, which partly conforms to 
this, the Anom, 

Obs. 1. Epic poets also contract the dat. v'i : IxOvl, {veKvg, v'eKv'i,) vtKvX. 

Obs. 2. The Dorians said, f^wg, ^wv. This word has this accus. in Homer {II. r]. 
238) when it is employed in the fern, gender for an ox-hide^ shield ; compare II. [x. 
105. (56s(TaLv. 

Obs. 3. The Attic writers frequently neglect the contraction in the words belong- 
ing to this §, mostly in the nomin. pi., and habitually in monosyllabics, as kIsq, 
fivsg, ^pvsQy ypaeg, j36sg: often also lyQveg, &c. 

Obs. 4. Through this contraction the pi. becomes again like the nomin. sing.; 
which is very remarkable. And even when the quantity is different, the accent at 
least does not always inform us of it ; as 6 ^otqvq and rovg [ioTpvg. 

Obs. 5. Besides Kig none i-etain, in common language, the formation in ig, log, but 
a few isolated forms of riypig, tiger, Troprig, heifer, iroaig, hmband, t) f^ijvig, wrath, r/ 
TpoTTig, keel, (which also partly take a ^ in the gen., see § 56. 06s. 5.) ; further, a few 
proper names like'^I^ig, and the adjectives in ig and t (see § 63, 1). The larger 
number of the remaining words in ig, which do not take a consonant, are declined 
entirely according to the following §. 

Obs. 6. The word oig (sheep) also follows the above decl. (Text 2.) and conse- 
quently has the gen. oiog, nom. accus. pi. oig (long i) : but the nom. sing, generally 
is contracted, rj oig. The decl. then is, gen. olbg, dat. oil, accus. olv, pi. oUg, olag, 
contr. oig (likewise r}, a\, and rag, oig). Homer has, however, in the dat. pi. otamv, 
viz. instead of of crt according to the following §. 



About the shortened c?a^. KXeo/3i, see § 28. 06s. 11. 



CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 



71 



Obs. 7. Most words in ovq follow the second contracted decl. like ttXovq, povq, vovq^ 
There are only two words declined like ^ovq, viz. xo^G? (see the Anom.) and povg 
when it signifies sumach, yet both without any contraction. 

§51. 

1. Most words in ig and l, and a few in vq and v, retain the 
vowel of the nomin. in common language only in the nomin., 
accus. and vocat. sing. ; in all the other cases they change it 
into E, and then the dat. el becomes ei, and the pi. esq and eag 
become elq, and the neuter eu becomes r? : but there is no other 
contraction. 

2. The substantives in ig and vg, besides, have what is called 

The Attic Gen. 

by making the gen, sing, ojg, (instead of ov,) and in the dual t^yv ^, 
(instead of oiv,) and accenting the three gen., as if the last syl- 
lable were short. (See § 11, 5 and 8.) 

3. Neuters in v and l have the usual gen. aarv, aaTEog, clgtewv : 

TriTTEpt TTETTEpEOg. 

4. Hence arises for substantives the following usual decl.: — 



Sing. 


i],{a city,) 


6{anell,) 


TO, {a town 


,) 




Plural. 




Nom. 


TToXig 


TTvx^g 


CLGTV 


TToXEig 


TTiix^ig 


CLGTY} 


Gen. 


TToXEwg 


TTTJX^Wg 


acTTEog 


ttoXewv 


TTT^X^^V 


aaTEU)V 


Dat. 


ttoXei 


TTVX^L 


adTEL 


iroXEcniy) 


Trijx^Giiv) 


aaT£GL{v) 


Ace. 


TToXlV 


Trrixvv 


aCTTV 


TToXEig 


Trrjx^ig 


aGTY] 


Voc. 


iroXi 


TTf/XU 


CLGTV 


TToXeig 


7ri]X^Lg 


aGTT} 


Dual N. A. 1 


ttoXee 


7rr/X££ 


CLGTEE 






G.D. 1 


7roX£(t)y 




irriXEMv 


CLGTEOl 


V 



5. Adjectives in vg, v, have the usual gen., and do not con- 
tract the neut. pi., ex. gr. 

r}^vg^ neut. r^dv, gen. 17SI0C, dat. r}^E7, 
pi. ri^E'ig, neut, i^Sta, gen. ridiwv, 

Obs. 1. Most words in vg are declined according to the preceding §. There is 
only TTsXsKVQ, and partly eyxcXv^ and TrpiajSvg, (see the Anom.) which follow the 
decl. of Trrixvg. Besides ttCov, (which, however, is nowhere found contracted,) there 
is a considerable number of names of plants and minerals in t, as aivaTri, Kivvdjiapi, 
&c. which are declined like darv. 

Obs. 2. Attic poets have also the gen. dffreojg for the sake of the metre, and later 
writers employ it likewise in prose. (Pint. Sail. 13. 7reTrepsu)g.) 

Obs. 3. Ionic writers make always tog of those in ig, {-TroXiog, Sec.) according to the 



^ Grammarians state it as Attic ; but in our Attic works we have yevea'soiv and 

KLVTjakoiV, &.C. 



72 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



preceding article. There is also a gen. eog, but only in Attic poets ; they shorten the 
qcn. £0)g for the sake of the metre ; TroXeog, vjSpsog, &c. Epics have the Ionic 
formation ; only in the dat. they use e'i, to avoid the cacophony of u, for instance, 
TToffig, TTOGiog, TToatl. Hence, when they contract this dat., they often make it £t, 
(TToXti,) instead of I, which is peculiar to Ionic and Doric prose (ttoXI). But the 
Ionic form of the words in vg of this decl., excepting 'iy')(^Ekvg, is tog, ei : TriJxvQf 
Trrjx^og, Sec. 

Obs. 4. noXig is the only word which with Epics has 7r6\r]og in the gen., and then 
the acciis. is TroXrja. 

Obs. 5. Contractions like TDjxuir, and (of the adj. neuter jj/jiicv) gen. r)fii(rovg,pl. 
TO. vixicrt}, belong to the time when the Attic writers were sinking. 

§53. 

The words in evq have also the Attic gen., but merely the 
gen. sing, in wc without any peculiarity in the accent, because 
the accent in the nomin. always is on wq, and must, according 
to § 43. Obs. 4. 1, remain on the penultimate syllable. The 
contraction in these words too extends barely to the dat. sing. 
and 7iom. and accus. pi., in which latter case mg, however, is 
more usual. 



Sing. 
Nom. 


b, [king,) 
(5a(nX^vg 


Dual. 


Plural. 
(dacjiXeig 


Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 


(daaiXiwg 
(5a(nXd 

j5aGtXev 


jdadiXioiv 


j5a&iXicov 
(5a(TiXevcn{v) 
[5a(Ti\iag, (^acnXelg 
f^adiXng. 



Obs. 1. The long a in the accus. sing, and pi. is an Attic peculiarity. Writers, not 
Attics, or what are called kolvgI, (§ 1, 9.) employ the accus. tig. But poets, even 
the Attics, sometimes conti'act the accus. sing, sa into rj {II. o. 339. Aristoph. 
jicharn. 1151). 

Obs. 2. The old Attics (Thuc, Aristoph.) contract the nomin. pi. into rjg, as ol 
iTnrfjg, ot MavTivrjg, which termination is erroneously written with the iota sub- 
scriptum, since it comes from the old ijeg. (See the following Obs.) 

Obs. 3. The Ionic dialect constantly has (SaGiXijog, ^aaiKri'i, rja, rjag, &c. The form 
eog, ft, occurs rarely, and is only peculiar to the poets. See about the dat. pi. (Saci- 
Xesffai, and (fi'om linrt.vg) iTnrrjeaai, § 46. Obs. 2. 

§53. 

1. There are some deviations in the Attic contraction of the 
third decl., when there is a vowel either before or after an c. 
The termination ea then is not contracted into rj, but into a, as 
vyiiig, (sound,) accus. sing, and neut. pi. vyiia, contr. vyta, (and 
the same with ev(})va, hdea,) kXc-oc, pi. ^Xafa, jcXea. 

2. Even those terminations of the words in avg, which com- 
monly are not contracted, absorb in this way the £ before a, ag, 



CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 73 

and wg, in some words ; as x^^^c^ {measure of liquids, see the 
Anom. xovQ,) gen. xouyg, (for xpiwg,) accus, x^'^^ accus. pi. xoac? 
(for xot'acj) Yl^LQaLivq, gen. Yleipaiwgf accus. Ilapam : ayvL^vg, 
TovQ ayvLag, and a few more. These are the few instances 
where the contracted ace. pi. differs from the contracted noin. 

pi- 

3. This produces in proper names ending in K\ir}g, contr. 
K\rig, a double contraction,, but commonly merely in the daf,, as 

Nom. IlepiKXirig — IlE^JtfcXfjc: 

Gen, IleptKXhog, contr. UepiKkiovg 

Dat. TispiKXiiL — YlapiKXisL — JlfpticXEi 

Ace. IIspiKXiEa — rifjOtfcXfa 

Voc. nepiKXeec — UepiKXug 

Decline in the same way 'HookX^c? {Hercules,) and others. 

Obs. 1. The doubly contracted accus. occurs seldom ; for instance, 'Hpa/cX^. That 
we also meet with 'HpaKXfjv (but only in later writers) may be accounted for from 
what is stated § 56. Obs. 4. 

06s. 2. Sometimes there is, instead of a conti'action, an elision of one of the 
vowels, for instance, vocat. "HpaKXeg, (by way of exclamation in the later prose- 
writers,) and in the poets the gen. 2o^o(c\£0i;, dat. 'HpajcXsT, Homer vTTspdsa, 
(instead of sa,) for vTrspSssa from -£Ti)g, Girkacn for (JTrssacn. 

Obs. 3. This elision may also serve to account for the xmaccented termination a, 
ex. gr. in to. kXsu, wliich, because of the contraction, should be long, being short in 
the Epic poets. Compare § 28. Obs. 11. 

Obs. 4. The learner must carefully notice which words, and which terminations of 
each word, have the usual form, or this peculiar contraction. We constantly find 
aXua, aXisag, (from aXuvg,) but of vyiii^g the accus. pi. vyuTg, never -ac. 

Obs. 5. The Ionic dialect always has vyiea, 'HpafcXssa, kvdsseg, &c., and the 
ancient poets contract the two first 6 into ei or t] : for instance, from KXsog, (nrkog, 
we find the gen. KXiiog, pi. fcXeia, dat. (ttthl, and (nrrj'i, further "HpafcXiJog, ij'i, fja. 
See the Anom. about XP^"?? Xp£wf. 

§54. 

1. Of the neuters in ag, these two^ Kspag, ?iorn, and ripag, pro- 
digy, have arog in the gen., but cast off the r in the Ion. dialect : 

KtpaTog, Kepaog, ripaTog, Ttpaog, 

and the three following, jripag, old age, yipag^ honour, Kpiag, 
flesh, constantly have merely aog. 

2. This produces the following contraction : — 



Sing. 
N.A.V. Kipag 

Gen. Kepaog, Kipwg 
Dat. Kipdi, kwo. 



Dual, 
KEpae, Kepa 
Kspaoiv, Kspwv 



Plural. 
Ktpaa, Kip a 
Kspawv, KepCjv 
Kipa(Ti{v) 



74 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 1. The word Tspag admits the contraction only in the pi. (Hpa, TspoJv,) the 
Attics use solely reparoQ in the sing. ; and of Kepag also the form arog has con- 
tinued in use along with the contraction. The three others commonly occur only 
contracted ; aog is in all writers a mere Ionic form. 

3. The remaining neuters in ag, aog, take only the forms a 
and a, for instance, crsXag, {light,) Ssirag, (goblet,) t<^ aiXa, SfTrct, 
pL TO. (TtXa, diwa. It is the same with ^ipag, acpiXag, and others. 

Obs. 2. The middle syllable pa is originally long in K£pag, (icipdTa, Anacr. 2. 
Eurip. Baccli. 919.) Hence the lengthened KtpdaTa and Tipdara of the (later) 
Epics. 

Obs. 3. But the end-syllable, for instance, of to. y'spa, Kpsa, is also used as short 
(see § 28. Obs. 11, and more particularly, Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr.). 

Obs. 4. The a of these words is often changed in the decl. into an 6 by the 
lonians, as if the nomin. were in og : for instance, Kspeog, rd ygpta, Kpesaaiv, and 
others. Some old words have barely this form, see the Anom. ^psrag, ovdag, and 
partly Kve(pag. 

§55. 

1. The comparatives in wv, neut. ov, gen, ovog, (§ 67, 68.) 
drop the v in the accus. sing, and in the nomin,, accus,, and vocat, 
pi, and contract the two vowels, but without this contraction 
the V never is dropped, not even by the lonians ; ex, gr. 



Plur, 
jULuZoveg, contr. fidZovg 

fjiHZ,o(n[v) 

jULEitovag, contr. jusiZovg 

jueiZoveg, contr. iieiZovg 



Sing. 
Nom. /i£i4'wv, {greater,) N. juhZov 
Gen. fiei^ovog 
Dat. fieiZovL 

Ace. judiova, contr. ij.eiZ(i), N. fdelZov 
Voc. jueiZov 

Neut. pi. TO. /deiZova, contr. juei^w. 

Dual. 
N. jmdZove, G. juleiZovoiv* 
The Attics are as fond of the forms f.idZova and fxdZovag as of 
the contracted forms ; jusiZoveg occurs rarely. 

2. The Attics contract in the same way, though it is rather 
harsh, the accus, of the two names 'AttoXAwv, wvog, and Uoaai- 
^(ov, h)vog {Neptune), 

Accus, 'ATToAXwva 'AttoXXw, Yloau^Cjva Hogh^w, 

Obs. The poets also have KVKewv, {drink of various ingredients,) KVKeojva — KVKeijj 
(Epic, KVKSiuj). — Compare about this contraction, and some similar ones, tUoJVj 
dr]dojv, the following §. Obs. 6. d. Obs. 7. 

§ 56. — Anomalous Declension, 
1. There is an anomaly in a decl., when one or more cases 



ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. 75 

of a noun are declined in a particular way different from the 
nomin. ; see, for instance^ avrip, Kvwvy ya\a, in the list of Ano- 
malous or Irregular Nouns. 

Ohs. 1 . Among these mere deviations of the deel. must also be ranked the decl. 
of foreign and later Greek names in q with a long vowel, as 

^ikriQ, gen. ^i\ij, dat. ^L\y, accus. ^iXrjv, <cocat. $1X77, 
'Ir](Tovg, gen. 'Irjcrov, dat. 'Ir]<jov, accus. 'I)]crovv, tocat. 'Irjaov. 

2. But most deviations from the regular formation consist 
in what is called an interchange of forms. In the Greek lan- 
guage one and the same word^ especially in the old Greeks 
frequently had more than one form of inflection, though its 
signification did not vary. It is true that in the polished lan- 
guage there was but one of these forms in use ; yet the other 
often maintained itself, sometimes for the sake of euphony, and 
sometimes by mere chance, especially in poetry ; for instance, 
Ar)ju{]Trip and Ai^fuirpa {Ceres) ; daKpvov, anciently SaKpv, vog 
[tea?'), 

Obs. 2. Under this head must also he ranked when a raasc. in og is at the same 
time a neuter in og of the third decl., as 6 and to (JKorog, darhiess, (TKvcjyog, adrhiking- 
vessel, oxog, chariot; further prolongations of the fem. endings of the first deck, as 
ceXrjvt], dvayKr], Ion. crtXrjvair], dvayicair], 'A9i]va, {3Iineri'a,) with Epics *AQr]vr], 
Ion. 'AOTjvaiT], and a number of female names in rj with the Epic form eia : Hrjve- 
XoTTT], UriveXoTTSia, Uspaecpoveia, Teotpixopsia, Sec. — Several proper names have 
already double forms in the nomin., (for instance, -KXi)g and -KXog, 'l(piKXrjg and 
''l(piKXog,) and poets may use sometimes one form, sometimes the other, as the verse 
requires ; Homer always has HdrpoKXog in the nomin., but in the accus. narpo/cXoj/ 
and TlarpoKXria, in the vocat. Ildrpo/cXe and JlarpoRXng ; and yet this cannot be 
considered as a metaplasm, of which we are going to treat presently. 

3. As such double forms originated at a time when people 
had no idea of grammar, but every form and termination w^as 
always alone before their eyes without any regard to the others, 
it naturally followed that of two inflections, especially in de- 
clensions, they used in one case one, and in another the other, 
and thus the noun in use became a true anomalon; for in- 
stance, yvvri should follow the first decl., but makes ywaiKOQ in 
the gen. from the unused nomin. FYNAIS: vav<^ has in the 
accus. vavv, but in the dat. vrjt (from the form vijvg, which is 
merely Ionic). See these words below in the list, and compare 
Zevg, vSiop, jovv, ^iv^pov, nvp. 

4. But frequently these double forms w^ere used, more or 
less, together in one casus, as vlog, gen. vlov, and (after a 
nomin. of the third deck) vUog : see this w^ord in the list, and 



76 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

compare also Oifiig, KOivojvog, opviQ, xovq. Such a word is 
called in Latin abundans '. 

5. When such double forms presuppose but one nomin.yixovo. 
which they differ in their decL, the word is called a 

Heterocliton : 
for instance, OiStVouc, gen. Ol^iiro^og, and after the contracted 
second decl. Oldiirov. But when one casus presupposes an ob- 
solete nomin., it is called a 

Metaplasmus : 
for instance, Sei'Spoy, ov, dat.pl. SevSpotCjand (as from to AEN- 
APOS) Uvlp^mv. 

6. It is likewise a metaplasm, when neuters pi. in a are made 
of masc. in oc? which is done in prose^— especially with 

TCi ^ECTjLia, (TTaOjULa, Gira. 
These forms are used in some particular connexions instead of 
ol ^acjfioX, &c. 

Ohs. 3. The greatest part of the common and poetical anomalous nouns consists 
of HeterodUes and Metaplasms, or is a mixture of both. Those which must be 
noticed separately, are stated in alphabetical order in § 58, but we will previously 
bring several classes, to which many belong, under one point of view. 

Ohs. 4. HeterodUes are the words in rig, which are declined after the first and 
third decl., come throughout, as {xvKtjg, mushroom, gen. ov and rjrog : especially pro- 
per names, as Aaprjg, gen. ov and i]Tog (see Anom. QaXrjg) : others in part. All 
compound proper names in particular, which have eog in the gen., form the ace. in 
t] and rjv : Swfcparjje, gen. {tog,) ovg, ace. ^wKparr], (Plato,) and ^(OKpdTrjv 
(Xenoph,). — And the lonians form, vice versa, the ace. sing, and pi. of the words in 
ijg of the first decl. after the third, as, 

Tov ^KyitoTta, pi. Tovg deaTroTeag, from dedTroTrjg, ov, 
MiXriddsa from MiXTiddrig, ov 2. 

Obs. 5. Some words in ig, which partly take a ^ in the inflection, and partly not, 
constitute another kind of Heterodites ; for instance, [xrjvig, (wrath,) ixrjviog and 
fxrjvidog, and several proper names, as ' Avaxapaig, idog (Aristotle) and eujg 
(Plutarch,) and the feminines in ig, idog, as Travrjyvpig, fxfjTig, ^Icrtg, QsTig, &c. 
commonly have log in the Doric and Ionic dialect. — Under this head must also be 
reckoned some Epic datives with the shortened i, (according to § 28. Obs. 11.) as 
daX for datdi. 

Obs. G. The nominatives ending in ojg, lov, wp, occasion likewise several changes, 
in some of which it is, however, doubtful whether one of the forms ought not rather 
to be considered as a contraction. Of this kind are 

^ Many, however, can only be said to be {abundantia) abounding for us in the 
grammar, since we are under the necessity of noticing at once in the aggregate, 
what was the practice at different periods, in different dialects, or of different 
writers ; for instance, the various inflections of Qkiiig. 

2 Names formed like patronymics, as Mikrid^rfg, EvpiTridjjg, and most of those 
which are not compounds, like 'EojKpdrrjg, &c., as Ai(7;;^ti'>jg, ^sp^rjg, Tvyrjg — with 
the exception of this lonism, constantly follow in Greek the first deck, though they 
are declined in Latin entirely after the third (gen. Miltiadis, Xerxis, Sec). 



ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. 77 

a.) ojg, gen. (jj SLTid o)og. Thus Mtvwc;, Trarpwg, jxrjTocjg, yet in the ^jZ. com- 
monly Trdrpueg, &c. See Anom. KaXwQ, and compare T^pajg. 

b.) wg, gen. (orog. These words sometimes drop the r : 6 Idpojg, {sweat,) IdpioTi, 
idpCira, has an Attic double form, ti^ Idp^i, tov IdpCi, considered as a con- 
traction, (like Kspari, Kspa,) but agrees likewise with the forms of the 
Attic second deck, just as xpwri, XP*? (Anom. xpi^g). See a more ob- 
vious transition to the Attic second deck in the Anom. yeXcog, and some 
adjectives, {evpvKspcjg, &c.) § 63. 06s. 5. 
Such words as have in the nominat. already two usual forms, can strictly 
neither be ranked amongst the HeterodUes nor amongst Metaplasms. 
Such are 

c.) JVom. ojg and eg. Even ipijjg, (orog, (desire, love,) which clearly is of the 
third deck, has a poetical double form, epog, ace. tpov. It therefore can- 
not surprise us, if some words of the Attic second deck have cases of the 
common second deck ; for instance, raojg, nomin.,][jl. rai^ and Taoi. See 
See also Anom. Kokwg and ykXoig. 

d.) Nom. (jjg and ujv. Here the change partly takes place already in the wowm. .- 
6 Td(l)g,gen. w, and Ta(jjv,gen. u)vog, [peacock,) 6 TVfujg, a> and rv(p(j)V, Stvog, 
{icldrlicind,) rj ciXwQ, {threshing-floor,) gen. io and wof, also aXiov, cjvog. The 
forms of the third deck are more usual Avith all of them in the pi. The 
accus. 'AttoXXu), IIocrti^iD, kvksu), § 55, may be compared with them. 

e.) Some feminines in wv have a collateral form in w, gen. ovg : yXrjxf^v, ojvog, 
(pennyroyal,) — yXTjxw, ovg, Topyojv, ovog, in old authors ropy(jj, ovg. 
Metaplasms. 
Obs. 7. Under this head must be considered — 

I. Subst. of the fem. gender terminating in wj/, the collateral forms of which 
(unlike those in Obs. 6. e.) have been lost, ex. gr. 

of eiKujv, ovog, (image,) we find also gen. daovg, ace. fi/cw, ace. pi. eiKovg, 
of dT]S(jJv, ovog, {nightingale,) — gen. drjSovg, 
of ;^£Xt^wv, ovog, {swallow,) — voc. x^XidoT, 
though we might also assume a contraction in the manner of fxeii^wv, &c. 

II. One subst. in cop, which points to a disused nomin. in ujg, ex. gr. 

t^wp, Cjpog, (water of the blood,) — Homer has the accus. i;\;tD ^, instead of 
lx(^pa. 
Obs. 8. Lastly, we find in Epic and Lyric poets, instead of the usual terminations 
in the cases of some words, others of a shorter or simpler form, the analogous nomin. 
of which is wanting ; especially forms of the third deck with the terminations og, i, 
a, eg, eai, instead of the usual ones after the first and second deck ; for instance, 
instead of dXKy, (of n) dXicij, strength,) — oXkI of AAS, 

„ „ KpoKTiv, (oi Kp6Kr},woof in iceaving,) — KpoKa of KPOS, 

„ „ dihov, dtSy, dtoT]v, (of 6 dtdrjg, infernal regions,) — d'idog, d'idi, d'ida of 

'AI2, 
„ „ KXdd(^j, (of 6 KXddog, twig,) — KXaSl, pk KXdosfft of KAAS, 
„ „ dvcpuTTodoig, (of to dv^pdiroSov, slave,) — dvdpaTrodeacn as if of 

ANAPAnOTS, 
„ „ v<Tjiivy, (of r) vafxivrj, battle,) — v(T[uvi of 'Y2MI2, 
and some others. Of this kind are likewise 
a'l ardyec, for arayoveg, drops. 

^ All these appearances are cleared up, when we have correct notions of the uni- 
formity of all the deck, and perceive that the first and second deck, with their 
double forms, are properly nothing but old contractions and mutilations of the 
thu'd. Thus the ace. w of the Attic second deck is connected with the contracted 
ace. u) of the thu-d ; that in v of the third with the fii'st and second ; the Ion. diGTrorea 
appears less irregular, &c. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gram. § 33. 06s. 3. 



78 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

BspaTra, Ospa-jrec, for Oeqcl-kovtu, eg, attendant. 
fidffrT, fxd<Triv, (of MASTI2,) for fxacrrlyi, a, of t) }xdaTi%, scourge. 
Some of tliest; forms cannot even couvenieutly be considered as known metaplasms, 
but barel}' as isolated casus of old words ; for instance, 
TYjv vicpa, {snow,) of NI^ : 
for the usual name of snow is xiwi', and VLcpdg has a derivative meaning (snow falling 
in large jlakes). Further the casus 

Ti]q <yTixog,pl. crrix^g, ag, of STlS, 
cannot be traced to the prosaic 6 aTixog, {line,) on account of the difference of the 
gender. 

Obs. 9. A very particular anomalous decl. is effected in Epic poetry by the very 
frequent use of 

the termination ^iv or ^i, 
employed instead of the dat. or gen. sing, and pi., and is appended chiefly according 
to the following analogy : as 

— o^iv to nouns of the second decl. ; for instance, 

arpuTog, Grparoipiv : 

— 7;0iv to those of the first decl. ; for instance, ' 

Kt(pakrj, Ke(pa\rj(pi, fSia, fSirj^iv * : 

— f (701V to the neuters in og, gen. sag ; for instance, 

oxog, (TrfjOog — o%f<70i, arrjOtcr^iv. 
Peculiarities and deviations (as /cparfo-^i of KPAS, Kparbg,) must be left to indi- 
vidual observation. It may, besides, safely be admitted that this form originally 
had a mere adverbial and chiefly local signification, exactly like the similar ter- 
minations 6i, dtv : hence opt(T(piv, {in the mountains,) KS(pa\rj(pi (Xa/3av), at the 
head, 6vpr]<pt, out of doors; and the meaning was frequently determined by the ad- 
dition of a prep., as stt' iKpio^iv, on the deck of a ship ; Sid artiQia^i, through the 
breast ; and thus originated the habit of adding this foi'm to all prepositions, which 
else govern the dat. or gen. in lieu of these casus. This continued to be its most 
frequent use by far, and it is but in few instances that we meet with this foi^m 
without a prep., instead of a casus ; for instance, dyXatrj^i TrsTroiOujg, trusting to 
courage ; (iir]<pi, by force; and most rarely instead of the pure gen., as o(jTt6(piv Oig, 
a heap of bones. But this form also assimilates to the real casus, as it often is gram- 
matically connected with it, as aTro TrXareog Trrvocpiv, and even frequently added 
to both the subst. and the adj. Kparsprjcpi (Sir](pi, which, however, is also done with 
the undisputed local syllable de in '6v8e Soixovde. 

§ 57. — Defectives and Indeclinables, 

1. Defectives are chiefly such words as, owing to their nature, 
occur but in one number, as aWri^, and the following plurals, 
TCL iyKara, (third decl.) entrails, ol IrYjaiah monsoons, al ^vajuai, 
setting of the sun, west ; and the names of festivals, as ra 
Aiovvaia, &c. 

2. Words which are in common use only in particular con- 
nexions, the principal of which are 

the neuters 6vap, {dream, vision,) and virap, (true appari- 
tions,) merely as nomin. and ace. 

* As grammarians assume that this syllable is a mere appendage to the requisite 
casus, they place the iota subscriptum under the r] when it is the dat., in order to 
distinguish it from the qen. This is evidently incorrect. 



DEFECTIVES AND INDECLINABLES. 79 

TO ocpsXog and to ridog, {use, utility,) merely as nomin., for 
instance, tl av riiuiv ocpsXog drig ; of what use wouldst 
thou be to us ? 
fjLoXr}, (the ancient form instead of fxacrxaXr}, shoulder,) in 
the expression viro fxaXr}g {under the arm). 
See also w jueXe and t5 tuv, in the list. Of this kind are like- 
wise several which from original nouns are become perfect 
adverbs, as the accus. tTTtKXriv, lE,aL(l)vr]g, properly IZ a'/^vrjc^ and 
the like, § 115. Obs. 3, 5. Lastly, those which want some 
cases ; see the Anom. apvog, irpicjjdvg, oaae, 

3. Indeclinables are only some foreign words, (as to TTaG^a,) 
the letters of the alphabet aX^a, /xu, &c., and of genuine Greek 
words, most cardinal numbers (§ 70). The participium neutrum 
TO xpstbv of the impers. -^^^pi], is also in some respects inde- 
clinable. See about tov xpewv, Buttm. Complete Gr, Gram, 
§ 57. Obs. 4. 

Ohs. 1. The name of the letter aiy[xa is found declined rd aiyfiaTa, &e. This 
might easily be accounted for from its having completely assumed the form of a 
Greek word ; but the correctness of the reading is questionable. 

Obs. 2. It is not proper to rank among the defectives several old and poetical 
words which occur but seldom in the oldest poets, and have by mere accident 
maintained themselves in some casus or other, as vi^a, mentioned in § 56, Obs. 8. 
(see also the Anom. Xirl, v^e,) and among the indeclinables those of the same kind? 
which have accidentally maintained themselves merely in the no7n. (or neuters in 
the nom. and ace.) as r] Sojc, gift, to Sifxag, body. There may be many words among 
the latter which the ancients never used in the gen. or dat., as dsfiag in particular ; 
in that case they are defectives; they would be indeclinables only, if for instance 
they occurred in the gen. without changing their form, as tov Trdaxa. See the list 
about XiTra. 

Obs. 3. Some such shoi't collateral forms of known words, as we have seen § 56. 
Obs. 8, in other cases are also met with in the nomin. only, and therefore improperly 
pass for being indeclinable. And it is still more incorrect to consider them as ar- 
bitrarily abbreviated from forms in use by the ancient poets, since they are rather 
remnants of the old language before it was analogically polished ; more perfect 
forms have subsequently been adopted in lieu of them. Such are : 
TO da) 1, pei-fect form, to dwna, house. 

TO KpT, [barley,) perf. r} fcpi0?), of which the former cannot be an abbrevi- 
ation, since the gender is different. 
7-6 a.\(pi, (barley-flour,) perf. a\<piTOv. The former simple form was probably 

declined like jusXt, iTog. 
TO y\d(pv, {cave,) evidently the neuter of an adj. FAA^YS, instead of which 
y\a0vp6g {excavated) was afterwards used. 
See also the Anom. Kdpa, /ca|0?7, which is considered as an abbreviation of Kdprjap, 
or Kdpr]vov, and some adjectives, § 64. Obs. 3, 4. 

1 Hesiod has it as ajA. {Th. 933. xp^^^^*- ^^>) t)ut (like the^^. Kapa) it may be 
considered as a contraction. 



80 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§ 58. — List of Irregular Nouns. 

Prefatory Remark. — With regard to the arrangement and 
use of this Ust, compare below the prefatory remarks to the 
List of Anomalous Verbs. What is there observed about ob- 
solete themes^ applies likewise here to obsolete nomin. ; they 
are distinguished in both places by capital letters. Whatever 
relates to common prose, is printed in a larger type, or partly 
so ; whatever is of rare occurrence and poetical, is printed in a 
small type. 



'AT]duJv,% 56. 06s. 7. 
aXfct, § 56. 06s. 8. 
(iXujQ and aXojv, § 56. 06s. 6. d. 
dva, roc, § 41. 06s. 5. a. c. with the 
note. 



ci'iSog, &c. § 56. 06s. 8. 
a/\0i, § 57. 06s. 3. 
afJL'Pio, §78. 4. 
dv^paTTodsacn, § 56. 06s. 8. 



avrjp, {a mail,) belongs to words like Trarrip, (§ 47.) but admits 
the syncope in all the cases which have a lengthened ter- 
mination, and inserts a S (§ 19. Obs. 1) f therefore, avdpbg, 
avdpl, avSpa, w avsp, pi. avBpEg, avdpiov, av^paaiv, avdpag. 

In the Epic poets also regularly dvspog, &c. and in the dat. pi. also dvdpeaaiv. 

'AttoXXwv, ace. § 55, 3. voc. § 45. Obs. 2. 

dpysTOQ, I, Epic abbrev. instead of the gen. apyrjroQ, dat. rjri, ivovcTdpyriQ {white). . 

"Apr]Q, [Mars,) gen. "Apeocj does not contract this gen., but it 
does the dat. "Apet — ace. "Apr] and "Apr/v, § 56. Obs. 4. 

In Epics Apijog, "Aprj'i, 'Aprja. We also raeet with the gen. "Apsbjg. 
See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gram. 

apvoQ, (rou, rr\Q, of the lamb^) apvX, apva, pi. apv^g, dat, apvaai. 
The nomin. sing, is supplied by djuLvog. 

These are the cases of an obsolete nomin. APHN or APPHN, gen. evog, 
whence by syncope dpvbg, &c. like the similar cases of dvrip. 
darpdai, § 47- 06s. 3. 

BaTTog has the metaplast. gen. of the first decl. Barrcw in 
Herod. 

(Sp'srag, {to, an image,) gen. ^pareog, pi. fSperr) (see § 54. 06s. 4). 
/3wv, ace. § 50. 06s. 2. 

yaXa, {to, milk,) makes yaXaKTog, jaXaKTi (compare § 41, 5, 
with the note). 

ydXcjg, {sister-in-law^ gen.'^ydXco, Ion. nom. yaXoojg, gen. yaXou). 
yaariip, § 47, 2, and 06s. 3. 

ykXuyg, (6, laughter,) gen. (urog, ace. ysXojra, and (according to the Attic second decl.) 
yeXwi/ (§ 56. 06s. 6. b.) 

Homer has also the dat. ysXo^), and in Od. v. 346, the ace. y'tXov, but 
with the various reading ykXia (§ 37. 06s. 2. and § 56. 06s. 6. c). 
yXd<l>v, § 57. 06s. 3. | yXrix^ov, § 56. 06s. 7. 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 81 

yovv, {to, the knee,) gen. yovarog, &c. dat, pi. yovaGiv (as if of 
rONAS) : compare ^6pv, doparog. 

Ion. yovvarog, Slc, and with poets yovvog, yovvlf pi. yovva, y'ovvb)v. 
Compare dopv. 
ropywv, § 56. Ohs. 6. e. 

yvvi), (ivife,) yvvaiKOQ, yvvaiKi, yvvaiKa^ w yvvai, pi. yvvaiKeg, ag, 
yvvaiKi^v, yvvaiKlv (of FYNAI^). 

Compare the toc. yvvai with dva, § 45. Ohs. 5, and § 41, note 5. The 
accent in yvvanzbg is an exception from § 43. Ohs. 4. 
daX, § 56. Ohs. 5. | ^tiva, § 73. 

divdpov {to, tree,) has the dat. pi. commonly StvSpacrt of to 
Eivdpog, which occurs in Ionic writers : compare Kpivov. 

The p>l- Ssvdpsa, devdpeoig, conies from another Tonic form, and occurs 
likewise in common prose. 

Aiog, All, see Zevg. 

Bopv, {to, spear,) gen. '^opaTog, %lq.. dat. pi. ^opaai (of AOPAS) : 
compare yovv, yovaTog. 

Ion. covpaTog, &c. The (rather poetical) casus dopbg, dopl, Ion. doupbg, 
dovpi,pl. dovpa, dovpo)v, dovpeacnv, come from a still simpler form. Com- 
pare yovv. 

dopv^h, Toc. see § 36, note. I dio, § 57. Ohs. 3, 

lap, i)pog, see § 41. Ohs. 7. | edojv, see evg. 

h/x^^vQ} {Vi €el,) vog, has in the pi. Ion. lyx^^v^^, &c. Att. 

ayx^^^LQ-) lyx^^^^'^ (§ ^l* Obs. 1). 
tifcwv, § 56. Ohs. 7. 
svg, (good,) an Epic word, of which there is only the gen. eijog'^, ace. Ivg. Also i^vg, 

ace. -qvv, neut. rjv. The Epic geii. pi. kdiov (see § 35. a. Ohs. 4. c.) comes 

from another form, EOS, a, ov, and its neut. pi. to. EA (goods). 
£wc, § 37. Ohs. 2. 
Zevg, {Jupiter,) gen. Aiog, dat. An, ace. Ala, (as if from AIS,) 

and a still less frequent form, Zrjvbg, Zi]v\, Zrjva, (from 

ZHN,) voc. Zfu. 
Kojg, § 64. Obs. 2. 
^\f, II. 0. 128. ^psvag ^Xe, (madman!) a vocat. abbreviated from the equally rare 

•nXebg (Od. (3. 243. (ppkvag rjkik). 
ripa, a defective aecus. in the Epic poets (love, assistance). 

ijpwg, (hero,) gen. <i)oq, contracts in the Attics the accus.ijpoja, rjpajag, into i'jpo), ijpojg. 
The short vowel is also absorbed in the other terminations for the sake of 

the metre, dat. ijpq), nom. pi. ol rjptjjg. Compare § 56. 06s. 6. a. 

^ The gen. arjog in Homer was formerly distinguished from it by the sphitus, 
where the sense seemed to require the pron. possessive thy; for instance, Trat^oc 
irjog, of thy son. It was then considered as the gen. of an old form, 'EY2 for log, 
his, which, like other forms of the third pers., (see the Syntax, § 127- Ohs. 5,) was 
used for the pron. poss. of the second pers. But Ifjog is the only connect reading. 
The pronoun here is not expressed, aud the adjective tvg supplies it in some de- 
gree ; just as laOXbg (excellent) is sometimes very ingeniously employed where the 
pron. poss. might be used ; for instance, //. e. 469. tt. 573. Compare especially 
Od. y. 379, with II. w. 422. See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 23. 

G 



82 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

i^vg, see tvg. 

QaXvQ^ gen. QciXem, dat. 9aX^, ace, 0aXi]v. We find this name 
in the oldest and best writers, with the accent removed 
only in the gen., and with. the Ion. gen. (Herod., Plato, &c.) 
The gen. GaXou, and the form GaXjjc, GaXrjrocj wh wa^ 
are later. To accent the first syllable of the casus after 
the first decL, excepting QaX^ti), is incorrect. 

O'iliiQ, {ri, right, Themis^ has in the old and Epic writers OsfjudTOQ, Dor. OsfiiTog, in 
common language Osfiicog, Ion. Osfxiog. Even the goddess, with Plato, is in 
the gen. QsfxiTog. 

Ospmra, OspaTrtg, § 56. Obs. 8. 

Gpi^, {rj, hair,) gen. rpixbg, &c. dat. pi. Opt^l, after § 18. 

tdpcjg, § 56. Ob's. 6, b. | 'Irjaovg, § 56. Obs. 1. 

t'x^Pj § 56- Obs. 7, 2. 

Ka\(x)g, (6, cable,) gen, w, ace. wv, pi. also KaXwsc and KaXoi, ace, 
KoXovg (from KAAOS) : see § 56. Obs. 6. a. c. 

Kapa, Att. Kapi], Ion. {to, head.) Of the first form, though so frequent in Attic 
poets, there are no other casus met with in them but the dat. Kapa. We have 
stated above, § 41,8, that the casus KaprjTog, ri, belong to Kaprj, but there is 
besides a more perfect form in the Epic poets, KaprjuTog, from a more rare 
nomin. Kaprjap. Compare § 41. Obs. 7- We have in the Hymn to Ceres, 
(v. 12.) the pi. Kapa (for -aa or -rja). 

To these must be added the poetical forms KPAAS and KPAS, the nom. 
sing, of which is not to be met with. The first is Epic, and neut. pi. 
Kpdara ; the other Kparbg, tI, is common to all the poets, and generally 
masc. ace. sing. Kpara, Homer. There is a third form peculiar to Sophocles, 
nom. and ace. sing, to Kpara {Philoct. 1457). 
Kkpag, § 54. | K\adl, § 56. Obs. 8. 

K\ug, (17, key,) kXhIoq, has in the ace. KXelda, commonly kXhv, 
and in the pi. jcXa^Ec? kXh^qq, contr. KXtlg. 

KVk^ag, {darkness,) prefers in the gen. the form -sag, {Kve^ovg, Aristoph. Eccl. 290.) 

and in the dat. a (§ 54. Obs. 4). Epic form -aog, a'i. 
Koivojvbg, {p)artner,) Xenophon has, instead of its regular pi., KoivQvtg and ag. 

Compare § 56. Obs. 8. 
KPAAS, KPAS, see Kapa. 

Kpeag, § 54. f KpT, § 57- Obs. 3. 

Kpivov, {to, lily,) has a collateral form in the pi. rd Kp'ivea, (Herod.) Kpiveai, as if 

of KPINOS. Compare devdpov. 
KpoKa, § 56. Obs. 8. | kvkswv, § 55. Obs. 

Kvojv, {dog,) Kvvog, kvv\, kvvci, uj Kvov,pl. Kvveg, kvvCjv, kvoX, Kvvag, 

K&ag, {to, fleece,) gen. Kwf oc, pi. kmso, § 54. Obs. 4. 

Xdag, conti'. \dg, (6, stone,) gen. \dog,dat. Xd'i, (§ 43. Obs. 4.) ace. \dav,\dv, (§ 44. 

Obs. 1.) dat. pi. Xdsaciv. But we meet also with the gen. Xdov after the first 

decl. (as from Xddg.) 
XiTra, an old subst. neuter, {oil, grease, fat, Hippocrates,) for which we also find 

XiTrag. The dat. XiVai, Xitt^, was shortened in pronunciation, and sounded 

again like XiTra, particularly in the expression XiTra dXii^eaOai, to anoint one's 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 83 

self ic'ith oil. Hither belongs also Homer's Xitt' sXa'Kf, which may be considered 

as the dat. of Xittu iXaiov {olire-oil). 
XXg, (6, Hon,) ace. Xlv. No other casus occurs in the ancient authors. 
Xig, adj. see § 64, Obs. 3. 5. 

Xlti, XItu, dat. and ace. of a nom. which is wanting, {fine linen.) 
fidXr], § 57. 2. 

fiapTvg, (witness,) makes juaoTvpog, &c. ace. fiap-vpa and fiagrvv, 

dat. pi. fiagrvaiv, 

ndari, IV, § 56. Obs. 8. | fisyag, see below, § 64. 

fieig, is the Ionic noiiiin. of /uDjv, (6, month,) gen. fxrjvog, &c. 

fisXe, a vocat. which occurs only iu famiUar conversation, w /xeXi, and is addressed to 

both sexes ^. 
ixfjrpwg and Mivcog, § 56. Obs. 6. a. 

vavQ, (?], 5^i/?,) the Attic declension of which is, 
Sing. — noni. vavg, gen. vswg, dat. vr]L, ace, vavv, 
pi. — nojn. vrieg, gen. veCjv, dat. vaval, ace. vavg. 

The old and Doric form is gen. vdbg, (whence viu)g, according to § 27. 
Obs. 10.) &c.,the Ionic vr]vg, vrjbg, Sec. ace. vfja and vrjvv. This gives a second 
Ionic decl. gen. vebg, ace. vka, pi. vhg, vkag. Thucydides has vidlv for the 
dat. of the dual. 
vitpa, § 56. Obs. 8. 

OlSi7rovg,gen. Oldiiro^og and Oldiirov, dat. -odi, ace. -o8a and -ovv, 
voe. -ov. 

There is an Epic and Lyric collateral form, (as if of the nom. Oldnrodrjg,) 
viz. gen. Oidnrodao, Dorice -a, lonlce -eoj, dat. -y, ace. -rjv, toe. Oidnroda. 

6Lg, olg, § 50. Obs. 6. 

ovELpov, [dream,] makes as a neuter ovdparog, &c. pi. oveipara, 

(comp. 7rp6<7ii)7rov.) There is also 6 oveipog, ov. 
opvig, (6, i), bird,) opvWog, has in the pi. a collateral form^ (after 

TToXig,) opvsig, opvecjv : compare § 56. Obs. 5. 

We also meet in the Attic poets with the ace. pi. bpvlg (§ 50. TroXig). The 

Dorians said opvlxog, opvlx^i &c. (§ 16. Obs. 1. a.) without making the nomin. 

in?. 
o(T(re, nom. and ace. {eyes,) is a dual only ; it makes the gen. and dat. merely after 

the second decl. in a, pi. form ; 6(T(twj/, ocraoig, b^aoiaiv. 
ovdag, {to, ground,) ovdsog, ovSei (§ 54. Obs. 4.).. 

ovg, {to, ear,) gen. tjrog, &c. gen. pi. lorcjv, (§ 43. Obs. 4.) dat. 

pi. w(t\v, contr. from ovag, arog, Doric nom. (Lg, 
waig, (child, boy,) wai^og, has in the dissyllabic Epic form Traig, 

TTaiv in the accus. 

TraVpojf, § 56. Obs. 6. a. j JltipaiCog, gen. § 53. 



2 This is considered, (like rfXh above,) as an abbreviation, instead of nkXti fi'om 
yLiktog, unfortunate. But it also frequently occurs in a good and flattering sense. 
(Plato Theoet. 90. Sehol.) It may be considered as the expression, '^ my friend,^ 
which is used in both senses. 

g2 



84 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

TrXUg, § 68, 6. 

TTvv^, (??, the place where the people held their assemblies,) made 

anciently irvKvog, ttvkvX, irvKva ; afterwards also irvvKog, &c. 
TToXre, § 64. 

TloaeiBujv, Covog, acc. Hogu^Cj, voc, lioau^ov, (§ 45. Obs. 2. §55,2.) 
The oldest form is, Xloaii^doiv, orog, Dor. Hoaiidav or Hoth^clv, avog, Ion. 

IIo(TeiSk(i)v, bjvog. 
TToVtg, § 50. 06s. 5. and § 51. Obs. 3. 
irpq.oQ, Trgavg, § 64, 2. 

Trpia^vQ, (6,) when it signifies o/^ 7nan, has only the «cc. 7rpi<T(3vv, 
voc, 7rp£(Tj3u. As ambassador, it is used only in the pi. {ol 
TTpiaPeig, dat. Trgia^Hat.) Its deficiencies are supplied by 
TrpeCTjSur)]^? o^d man, and rrp^G^^vrjig, ambassador. 

Isolated and poetical instances, as 7rpe(T(3eo)g, of the ambassador, Aristoph. 
AcJiarn. 93. 7rpicrj3r]£g, old men, Scut. Here. 245. prove nothing against the 
common use. 
TrpScTujTrov, {to, face,) pi. Epic TrpocwTrara, TrQoad)7raaiv. Compare ovsipov. 

TTpoxoog, {rt, ewer,) Attic wpoxovg, gen. irpoxov, (§ 60. Obs. 5.) 
passes over to the third decl. in \h% pi. : dat.pl. irpoxovGiv., 
(Aristoph. Nub. 272. Eurip. Ion 434.) like jSouc, jSouat v. 

TTvp, [to, fire,) makes its plural after the second decl. ra irvpa, 
dat. irvpolg (Xen. Anab. 7, 2). 

cdog, ccjg, § 64, 3. 

<7rjg, (6, moth,) gen. ctbg,pl. crseg, a'tac, gen. <rtS)v, § 43. Obs. 4. In later times, crjTog, &c. 

(TKujp, {to, ordure,) gen. aKarog, &c. (see vdwp.) 

afj.u>di^, {rj, iceal,) makes afjiujdiyyog, &c. 

(TTTSog, § 53. Obs. 2 and 5. 

ffTaysg, § 56. Obs. 8. \ orlap, <TTr]p,gen. aTrjToc, § 41. Obs. 7. 

(TTLxbg, {gen.) (JTix^g, § 56. Obs. 8. 

aCjg, § 64, 3. I awTtjp, voc. § 45. Obs. 2. 

Tciv, 0) rav, {a salutation in common life, O thou ^ I rarely O ye I) 

TUijjg, § 56. Obs. 6. c. d. j rpixbg, &c. see 6pi^. 

Tvrpujg, § 56. 06s. 6. d. 

vdwp, {to, water,) gen. vdarog, &c., dat. pi. vdamv. 

See above, (T/cwp, aKUTog. The old nomin. is"TAA2 : its interchange with 
v^og (compai'e § 54. 06s. 4.) accounts for the Epic dat. v^h. 

vLog, [son,) is regular, but very frequently, and especially in 
the Attics, also has the following casus, after the third 
deck, gen. vUog, dat. vht, [acc. vUa,) dual, vUa, vUoiv,pl, 
vhlg, vUiov, vU<JLVi viiag [vhTg). 

Of these the gen. and the whole pi. are mostly used, even preferably to 
the regular form. The acc. viea is rejected, as well as the reading of the 

^ The reading w Wav rests on the absurd derivation from tTrjg, friend, w 'ira. 



ADJECTIVES. 85 

gen. vX'sojq. The lonians make the gen. virioQ, &c. All this is a mere 
lengthening of the casus, derived from the simplest old form 'YIS, used by 
the Epic poets, and the accent of which in the gen. and dut. sing, points to a 
contraction of vi, gen. vIoq, dat. vli, ace. via, pi. vise, dat. vidai, with the a 
inserted (like Trarpdaiv, dpvdcnv,) because the diphthong vl is not used 
before a consonant. 

v(Tixlvi, § 56. Obs. 8. 

(pdpvy^, (rj, throat,) vyyog, poetically (pdpvyog, Sac. 

(ppeap, gen. (ppmroQ and drog, contr. (pprjTog, Sec. See § 41. Obs. 7- 

X^i/o, (17, hand,) has in the gen, and dat. of the dual x^po^i^j ^^^ ^^ 
the dat.pl. x^9^^^^ (with poets also x^P^^> X^i°^^ ^'^^ X^i°^^^)* 

X^\iS(^v, see § 56. Obs. 7* I X^v'h &c. and x^p^i-^, § 68, 2. 

XovQ, (6, 'a measure of liquids/ congius,) is partly regular^ 
(after (5ovg,) xooc? x^"^^ x^^'^^ P^- X^^?' X^^c^ but as it pro- 
perly is a contraction of xof^c, (Hippocr.) the better Attic 
forms, gen. xo^c? ctcc. x^a, ace. pi. x^ac ^ come from this, 
according to § 53, 2. But x^^^^ ^, {earth heaped up,) has 
merely gen. x^^g, ace. xovv, &c. See irpoxovg. 

Xpswr, § 57, 3. 

Xpawc % {to, debt,) an Ionic-Attic form for XP^'^C? {ff^^- XP^o^^C?) 

has gen. again xP^^^iP^' X9^^' (§ ^^* ^^^* ^0 ^^* "^be dat. 

is wanting in both numbers. The Epic poets have xp^^oc 

and xp£twc in the nomin. 
X/owCj (o^ 5/:m,) ^e/z. xpwroc, &c. Ionic xpooc? XP*^^^ XP^^' '^be 

Attic c?«^. xpw is used merely in the expression kv X9^ 

(§ 56. Obs. e.'b). 

w rdv, see rdv, | wVoc;, see owg. 

§ 59. — Of the Adjectives. 

1. The Greek language, by its distinction of genders (motio), 
has two classes of adjectives; the first comprises adjectives of 
three terminations, the second adjectives of two terminations, 
in the last of which the masc. and fem. have a common form 
(they are, as in Latin, communis generis). There is, properly 
speaking, no third class of adjectives, since the few which 
might be enumerated in this class are not, as in Latin, generis 
omnis. See § 63, 3-5, and the seeming exception, ibid. Obs. 2. 

* Which must not be confounded with x^"-Qi from at x^'^h libations in Jionour of 
the dead. 

^ Hitherto %p£wg frequently occurred in our editions as nomin. and accus. ; it 
has now been restored also as a gen. from MSS., for iiiStance, Demosth. c. Timoth. 
1189,25. 1203,16. The form itself may be explained by the verb xpaw. The 
oldest form of the substantive was XPAOS, gen. XPAOYS, and from this arose the 
nomin. and gen. xpswg, just as Xaog and Xaovg made Xecog. Xpsog is the abbreviation. 



bt) A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

2. The fetn. of adjectives of three terminations always follows 
the first decl. 

3. The neuter always has in the nomin., and consequently in 
the three similar casus, (§ 33. Obs, 5.) a particular form, but 
which in the other casus is declined like the masculine. 

Obs. To decline adjectives correctly, we need only to know the gen. masc. beside 
the nomin. 

§ 60. — Adjectives in ~og. 

1. The adjectives in -oc are the most numerous; they corre- 
spond to the Latin adjectives in us, and either are, like them, 
of three terminations, 

Masc. og, fern, rj or a, ^ neuter ov ; 

or of two terminations, 

common og, neuter ov. 
See the few which have the neuter in o, among the pronouns, 
§74. 

2. Most adjectives are of three terminations ; whenever there 
is a vowel or p before the final syllable, they have in the /em. a, 
gen. ag, else always i]. Thus, for instance, 

Kovcpog, Kovcprj, Kovcjiov, {light,) 
(l)i\og, ^/Xrj, ^i\ov, {dear, friendly,) 
deivbg, S^Lvrj, deivov, {dreadful,) 
but 

viog, via, viov, {young,) 
(piXiog, 0tXia, (piXiov, {benevolent,) 
eXtvOepog, -ipa, -epov, {fi'^^j) 
TTvppog, -a, -bv {red). 

Obs. 1 . Only those in oog have in the fern, r) : oydoog, 6y86r], Oobg, 9or}. But 
when p precedes, they also make the /em. in a : aQpooq, aQ^oa. The fern, in a is 
always long, except in ^Xoq, Sla, Slov, [divine,) and some adjectives in eiog. See 
Buttm. Complete Gr. Gram., and Trorvia^ § 64. Obs. 3. Respecting the accent, see 
§ 34. Obs. III. 1, 2. 

3. The following adjectives in og are partly always, and 
partly usually, of two terminations, viz. 6 and 17 j5ap(5apog, ov, 
7]av)(og, TLOaaog, apriog., Kaipiog., irarpiog, [5a(7i\eLog, yvwpifJLog, 
(l)(j)i\iluiog, &c., and with the Attics and poets many more, which 
commonly have the three terminations, as kXwOepog, KoajULiog, 
Sec. 

4. Compound adjectives in og, in particular, are of two termi- 
nations; as 6, T) (5a6vKoX7rog,ev(l)wvog, aXoyog, apyog, {for aepyog,) 
cnroKXripog, lyKVKXiog, didXevKog, (though the primitive is XevKog, 



ADJECTIVES. 87 

^, hv,) TToXvypacjiog : also those derived from compound verbs, as 
Eia(l)opog, virmoog, e^aipsTog. Those, however, which in their 
derivation add the syllable Kog, have always the three termina- 
tions, as kTTiEbiKTiKog^ 7], bv, (from the verb cTTiStiKvu^f,) av^aino- 
vLKog, rj, bv (from tvSaiiuLwv) ; and frequently also the adj. in toe 
(oLog, &c.), when they are compounded with the so-called a 
privative ; ew, gr. ava'^iog, ia, lov. 

Obs. 2. All adjectives in oq, which having their final syllables in 
Kog, \og, voQ, pog, and eog, 
clearly added, as a mark of their derivation from other words, for instance, fiav- 
TiKog, deiXbg, deivbg, (pavepog, TrXfKrbg, %pu(7£og, have generally, at least in prose, 
the three tei-minations. But among those ending in 

fiog, log, eiog, aiog, 
there are several communis generis. Poets only sometimes allowed themselves, for 
the sake of the verse, r) Xa/xTrpof, (pavspbg, Kkvrbg, and the like. 

06s. 3. It is also a pretty general rule, that the adjectives in oc, which in making 
their feiii. in t] or a would render it similar to the abstract subst., have it partly 
always, and partly frequently, in og, ex.gr. awrripiog, tXevOtpiog, (SacriXeLog, because 
of }) aujTtipia, iXi.vQi.pia, jSaaiXeia : thus (piXiog, which has the fern, ^iXia, has also 
r/ (piXiog, because of the subst. r) (piXia. 

Obs. 4. The poets, on the contrary, employ also compound adjectives, which 
generally are communis generis, with the fem. form ; as dOavdrr], djW^iXyKj;, Homer, 
ddfirjTri, Sophocles. See the comparatives and superlatives, § 05, &c., and Obs. 6 
to the same §. 

Examples for the practice of the adjectives in og are given in the Appendix. 

5. Some adjectives in oog are contracted, viz. : 

a.) The communia, like Evvovg, evvovv, (well-disposed,) gen. 
evvov. They are all compounds of contracted words 
of the second decL, as vovg, irXovgy &c. Their decl., as 
they are compounds of words already contracted, is 
independent of the general rules of accentuation ; 
hence they retain the accent in all casus upon that 
syllable, where it was in the nom., whilst the resolved 
form is obliged to throw it forward; ea^. gr. evvov 
(resolved evvoov). They even circumflex the penul- 
tima, when long by nature, before the contracted ot of 
the nom, plu7\ ; ex. gr, evvoi ; but it is to be recollected 
that the accent can never be removed to the antepenul- 
tima ; thus, Trep/TrXot, KaKovoi [KaKovovg ^). The neuter 
plur, in oa remains unchanged: ra avoa, of avovg, 
senseless, 

^ In the common language of the day, these contractions degenerated into 
abbreviations in og. Hence the collateral forms in vog of proper names originally 
ending in voog ; the former thei-efore lengthen the penultima ; ex.gr. 'EuOvvovg 
and EvOvyog, 'Apxivovg and 'Apx^^oQj KaXXlvog^ properly KaXXivoog. 



€8 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



Plur. fivvoi, evvoa 

tVVLJV 



£VVOlV 

evvovg, ivvoa. 



Sing, ivvovq, euvouv 

iVVM 
^VVOVVi bVVOVV 

b.) The multiple numerals, airXoog, ^nrXoog, r], ov, &c. 
(simple, twofold.) They have this peculiarity, that 
they all contract or] and 6a into i] and a : hence 
Sing. ^LirXoog, diirXovgi SiTrXorj, SiTrAf), dnrXoov, BinXovv 

^/ttXoou, StTrXou, ^i7rAoi7C? ^lttX^q, &c. 
Plur, dnrXooi, ^lttXoX, ^iirXoaL, ^iirXaX, diirXoa, StirXa 
^iirXowv, diirXiov, &c. ^ 
6. Some adjectives in foc, denoting a material, are contracted 
and transpose the accent ; as y^pva^ogi (golden^ ^P^^^^^ X9^~ 
o-£ov, contr. ^pvaovg, XP^^^^ Xpuaouv, gen. ov, ijg, ov, &c. If 
there be another vowel or p preceding the final syllable, the 
fem. is not contracted into ?j, but into a, as kpkog, (woollen,) 
contr. epeovg, gpca, speovv : apjvpEog, [made of silver,) contr. 
apyvpovg, apyvpa, apyvpovv. The letter g in the Dual and Plur., 
like the letter o in the multiple numerals, becomes absorbed by 
the following diphthong or vowel ; hence the neut. plur. to. 
Xpvcra, ace. /em. rag xpvcrag : ex.gr. 

Sing, ;)(j0ij(7£0c, crovg xpvGia, ari xpvaeov, crovv 

Xpvaiov, GOV )(^pV(Teag, arig ^puaeou, gov 

\pvai(j^, GM ^pvGEa, Gy ;^pvo-£(i>, G(f 

XpVGWVy GOVV XpVGtaV, GTIV \pVGi:OV, GOVV 

Plur, ')^pvGEoi, Got xpvGeai, Gol xpvGia, GO., Sec, 

But the word [apyvpeog, ia, eov) apyvpovg, apyvpd, apyvpovv 
Gen. apyvpov, apyvpdg, dat. dpyvpt^, dpyvpq., &c. 
Epwvg, Ipm, fjO£ouv, gen, Ip^ov, dg, &c. 

§ 61. — Adjectives in wg, 

1. Adjectives in (vg after the Attic second decl. (see § 37.) 
are generally communis generis, as 6 and 17 'IXeuyg, to 'IXewv, 
{propitious,) and partly have the neut. w, as dyrjpojg, neut. dyrjpwv 
and dyr)p(jj. (See § 37. Obs. 2.) 

2. The simple nXiwg, (full,) nXla, irXiwv, neut. pi, TrXia^ has 
the three terminations, but its compounds conform to the above 
rule, ex. gr. avcnrXnog^ dvairXiwv. 

Ols. About those in yeXojg and icepcjg, see § 63. Obs. 5. — <Twg, see § 64, 3. 

2 These numerals must not be confounded with the compounds of nXovg, {narAga- 
tion,) which are communis generis, as 6, ii d-TrXovg, ev7rXovg,SLC. neut. ovv,neut.pl.oa. 



ADJECTIVES. 



89 



§ 62. 
The remaining adjectives of three terminations are — 

1.) vg, ua, V, as yXvKvq, yXvKEia, yXvKv, sweet, see § 51^ 5^ 
ex. gr. 



ing. yXvKvg^ 


ua, V 


Plur. 


yXyKslg, 


uai, 


ea 


yXvKioQj 


dag, iog 




yXvKiiiiv, 


£lC)V, 


eiov 


yXvKU, 


eia, a 




yXvKi(7L, 


ELatg, 


i<JL 


yXvKVv, 


eiav, V 




yXvKetg, 


dag, 


ia 


(yXvKv,) 


Eta, v 




yXvKdg, 


e7ai, 


ia 



Dual, yXvKES, £ia, h 

yXvKEOiv, daiv, ioiv. 
Examples : Bapvg, heavy, [5paSvg, sloiv, (5paxvg, sho7^t, 
Evpvg, broad, ri^vg^ pleasant, o^vg, sharp, coKvg, swift, 
driXvg, eia, v, female. 
2.) eig, saaa, £v, gen. evrog, xapt£fc, graceful, § 46. Obs. 1. 



')(^apiEig, lE&cra, i£v 
')(^api£VTog, iiaaiig, levrog 
^(^aphvTL, ledcrrf, Uvtl 
')(apLevTa, Uaaav, 
\apUv 



tev 
Uv 



Plur. 



Xapf£vr£c, 


i£(j(Tai, 


levra 


)(apiivTU)v, 


lEdcrivv, 


dvTOJV 


XapUai, 


liaaaig, 


ieai 


yapUvTag, 


liaoag, 


lEvra 


XapUvTSg, 


Uaaai, 


Uvra 


a, ievTE 






aiv, livToiv 


. 





i£(j(Ta, 
Dual. x'^P^^^'^h ie<j(Ta, 

XaplEVTOlV, lE(7(TaiV, 

Examples ; alfxaTOEig, bloody, vXrjEig, woody, ^(j)vi]ELg, vocal, 
3.) ag, aiva, av, as jLiiXag, fiiXaiva, fiiXav, black, 
{gen. avog,) gen. iiiXavog. 

There is but raXag, miserable, like fiiXag. 
4.) The following isolated ones^ 

TEpy]v^ TEOELva, TEpEv, gcn. Evog, [tender^ 
l/cwi^j EKOvda, EKov, gcii. ovTog, {spontaneous,) 
Trag, Trdaa, rrdv, gen. iravTog, {the ivhole, all,) 

and all participles of an active form, § 88, 8, and § 103. 

Obs. 1. The adjectives in vg are also communis generis with poets : as ydvg avrfiq, 
Horn. OrjXvQ vsoXaia, Theocr. The lonians have, instead of the fern, ela — sa and 
kr], as ojKsa, j3a9sr]v (Homer). Of ijiiicrvg, (Jialf,) the older Attics also made ijixiata 
instead of T]fxi(Tcia. See the note to Plato Meno. 17, and Buttra. Complete Gr. Gr. 

Obs. 2. There is a compound of kicujv, ccskojv, {involuntary^ which is contracted 
cLKiuv, ovaa, ukov. The neut. Trdv is long, merely because it is a monosyllable ; but 
in its compounds it is, conformably to analogy, short, liTrdg, uTrdaa, ciirdv {all 
taken togetlier). 

Obs. 3, The adjectives in tig give rise to contracted adjectives ; r]i.ig, riecrcra, rjsv, 
are contracted into yg, rjcraa, rjv — and osig, oecrcra, oev, into ovg, ovaaa, ovv, for 
instance, 

Tifxyg, Tinijcraa, niJLrjv, gen. Tiixrjvrog — from rtjwr^fig, lionoured. 

jxiXiTovg, fisXLTovaaa, niXirovv, gen. ixtXirovvTog — from fieXiToeig^fuU of honey. 
See about them § 41. 06s. 5. 



90 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§ 63. — Adjectives of one and two terminations, 

1. Adjectives of two terminations all follow the third decl. 
They are — 

1.) ng, neut. f.q — as (racprjg, cracp^g, dear. 

{gen. coc, contr. ovg,) gen. aa(j)ovg (Paradigma rpirtprjg 
and THxog,) ew.gr. 



Sing, aacpng, aa^cc 
cya(l)Ovg 
aacpu 



Plur, aacpug-) (jai^ri 
(ya(pC)v 
(Ta(f)i(Tiv 
(7a(peig, (ja(l>ri. 
Dual Nom. aa^r\:, gen. (7a<^oTv. 
Examples: aXy]drig, true, ay^vyrjg, ignoble, aKpijirig, ac- 
curate, aifOaSr]g, (long a,) proud, 6i)piwdirjg, brutal, 
TrXi^prjc, full, aXrig, amassed, xpevdrig, false, irprivrigj 
bending forward, 
vyirig, see § 53. 
2.) wv, neuter ov — as TrtVwv, iriirov, ripe, 

{gen. ovog,) gen. iriirovog. {Parad, Saiiuwv.) 
Examples : a/uLVjuLwy, (long v,) blameless, airpaj^wv^ idle, 
evyvwfuov, well-meaning. See the comparatives in wv 
and i(ji)v, § 67. 68, a. § 55. 
3.) ig, neuter i — as 'idpig, 'l^pi, knowing, gen. 'Idpiog, 

{gen. log,) has very few examples. (Paradigma iroXtg, 

§ 50.)_ _ 
vrjCTTig, Jejune, fasting, rpocjyig, well-fed. The Attic poets 
form the gen. of these words sometimes in idog : 'l^pi^og, 
4.) The following isolated one : 

appr]v or ap(jr]v, neut. appev, apaev, masculine, 
gen. appsvog, apfrevog, 
2. But besides these, there are adjectives compounded with 
subst., of which they retain the final syllable and declension, 
as far as it is possible, as is best seen from the examples. They 
all are communis generis, and have a neut. gender when it can 
be formed agreeably to analogy ; for instance, 

evxapig, tu^OjOt, graceful, gen. irog, from 17 x^P^^y trog, 
cidaKpvg, adaKpv^ tearless, gen. vog, from to daKpv, vog, 
[xovoSovg, juovoSov, gen. ovrog, from 6 oSovg, ovTog, 
Sometimes the conversion of rj into w, and £ into o, takes place 
in the final syllable ; for instance, 

from Trarrjp, ipog, comes airaTwp, op, fatherless, gen, opog, 
from (^tpriv, (ppevog, comes Gw(j)pwv, ov, wise, gen. ovog. 



ADJECTIVES. 91 

3. If no analogous neut. gender can be formed, the adjective 
has but one termination, which, however, is only communis 
generis^ (not, as in Latin, omnis generis,) ex. gr. 6 and 77 airaiQ, 
ZoQ, childless ; 6 and 77 ^xaK^oyjELp, longimanus, * having long 
hands' 

4. There are some adjectives communis generis of one termi- 
nation^ in i]q, r^rog {r]iuiLOvrjQ,) in w^, wTog, {ayviogj) in E, and t//, 
{tiXl^, Kog, fxwvv^i )(oc, alyiXop, ttoc) and one in r]v, aTrrrjv, 
cnrrrivog. 

5. Common ones of this kind are also several adjectives in 
ag, gen» adoQj as \oyag, {select,) cpvyag, vojuag, (nropaQi and some 
in tg and vg, gen. idog^ vdog {avaXKig, ETrrjXuc, auyKXuc). But 
generally those in ag and tg are only of the /em. gender, and on 
omitting a subst. become substc of the fern, gender ; for instance, 
7) fjiaivag, {yvvr),) a bacchant, 77 jrarplg, (yri,) native country, ti 
'lac? V 'EXXr}Vig. 

6. Several adjectives of one termination are only of the masc. 
gender, especially yipwv, ovrog, {old,) 7rpia(5vg, {old,) irivrig, rjTog, 
{poor,) and after the first decl. WsXovTrig, {voluntary,) yewa^ag, 
{noble,) and several in tag (as Tpoiriag, p.oviag). See also Obs. 7. 

Obs. 1. Some commoa adjectives of this kind have collateral /aw. forms, but are 
mostly confined to poetry, as fiovvoysveia, rj^vkivEia, from the masc. in rjQ. See also 
§ 64. Obs. 3. 

Obs. 2. As (according to § 58, 3.) the neut. always is declined like the masc, the 
gen. and dat. of words, which have no neuter gender in the nomin., may be employed 
as being of the neuter gender, and such casus then actually are omnis generis ; but 
this is done only by poets, as Eurip. Or. 834. ^pojuacrt (3\e^dpoig, Nicander Ther. 
631. apyrJTi clvOel. 

Obs. 3. Else the neuter, which is wanting, is supplied, in case of need, by a deri- 
vative form in ov, as ^Xukikov, ccpTraKTiKov, ixwvvxov, for j8Xd|, apira^, jjlCjvv^. 

Obs. 4. Those compounded with tzovq, Trodbg, {foot,) are regularly declined like 
their subst., as diTrovQ, odog : but in the neuter they take ovv, (as evvovg, evvovv, of 
the contracted second decl.) and yet decline this neuter according to the general 
rule, § 58, 3, like the masc. to diTvovv, tov Siirodog. 

Obs. 5. Adjectives coming from ykXiog, wrog, (laughter,) commonly forsake the 
decl. of their subst. and follow the Attic second decl. (see § 61) ; those made of 
Kspag, oTog, {horn,) change the a into w, and follow the same decl. ; but both have 
also the gen. lorog, and the neut. wv then has the same anomaly as the adjectives 
compounded with Trovg : for instance, ^iXoyeAwf, dUepwg, neut. lov, geii. w and (jjtoq. 
Those compounded with epwc retain nothing of the Attic second deck, but the 
accent in the nomin., as dvcrtpojg, gen. ojrog. 

Obs. 6. The compounds of iroXig take a d in their declension, ex. gr. (piXorroXig, i, 
gen. idog ; but in the Ionic and Doric writers they end regularly in log in the gen. case. 

Obs. 7- But adjectives and substantives in Greek run so much one into the other, 
both in form and connexion, that not only many of the above-mentioned adjectives 
(as 7rpi<r(3vg, 7rkvi]g) may be considered as subst., but also several real subst. (in 



m 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



M. K N. 

TToXvQy TroWrjf TToXv, 

TToXXou, TToXXr^Cj TToXXoi), 

TToXXiO, TToXXy, TToXXtO, 



TToXll 



VV, 



TToWriVy TTO 



X{,. 



i]Q, Toip, €uc, as for instance, ittvitiiq dproQ) may be looked on as adjectives, and 
become communis generis with poets, even when they are of the masc. gender ; see 
§ 123. Obs. h 

§ 64. — Anomalous and Defective Adjectives, 

1. The two adjectives, juiyai', great, and TroXvg, much, derive 
only the nom. and ace. sing. masc. and the neuter from this 
simple form : /j-lyag^ juLsyav, ttoXuc? ttoXvv, fxeya, iroXv : all the 
rest and the whole /em. comes from the obsolete MEFAAOS, 
T], ON, and iroXXbg, i), ov, thus : 

Sing. M. F, N. 

Nom. fxiyaQ, jueyaXr}, juaya, 

Gen. /^eyaXoVi jueyaXrjg, jueyaXou, 

Dat. jueyaXw, fieyaXij, jueyaXw, 

Acc. fxiyav, fisyaXr^v, juiiya. 

The dual and pi. are regular like those of adjectives in og : 
jUByaXo)) a, w, jueyaXoi, at, a, ttoXXoi, at, a, &c. 

Obs. I. The forms TroWbg, ttoWov, are Tonic, and the regular forms of ttoXxiq 
are found in Epic poets ; for instance, ttoXsoq, ttoX'ssq, tig, &c. They have also 
TTOvKvg, TTovXv, and employ the masc. likewise as /em. {ex.gr. II. k. 27.) 

2. npaoci mild, is employed in this form only in the masc. 
and neuter sing. : the whole fem. and most neut. pi. are borrowed 
from dialects, as ir^avg (Ion. ir^-qvo)* 

Hence 

7rpaov,gen. irpaov, &C. 

Trpaia 

irpaiwv 

TrpaoiQ and icFiv 

TTpaia. 

3. Swc^ {safe^) contr. from 2A0S, has of this form only (twq, 
{communis generis,), acc. and neuter awv, acc. pi. crwc Rarely 

fem. sing, and neut. pi. ad. All the rest is of aujog, a, ov {Ion. 
<t6oq). 

Obs. 2. The acc. pi. aCbg is easily accounted for as coming from 2A0YS. But the 
nomin. pi. (rdg, which also occurs, points to the third decl. crojg, froJsg : just as SAGS 
produced awg, ZA02 produced the Homeric ^we? whence the common ^ojog. (Com- 
pare the verbs aaooj, crww, e^aov, ei^cov.) 

4. The principal defective adjectives are — 

a.) aXX{]Xojv, § 74, 
b.) «/x0w, § 78. 

c.) (ppov^og^ gone, evanescent, which is used merely in the 
nomin. of all genders and numbers (see § 151).^ 



Sing, irpdog 

Plur. wpaoL and irpaug 
irpaibjv 

TTp^oig and Trpaiaiv 
TTpaovg and Trpaelg 



TTpaeia 

Trpauai 

irpauCjv 

irpauaig 

irpadag 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 93 

Obs. 3. We notice also a few rare and poetical occurrences, as 

1.) TTOTVia, in the Epic poets Trorva, {renerable mistress,) only /em. 

2.) fiaKap, (blessed,) is communis generis, but has also [xaKaipa in the fern. The 
neuter does not occur. 

3.) A few adjectives masc. have a less frequent derivative form for the fern. 
7rsvr]cr(7a of Trsvrig, 7rp6cr/3eipa of TrpkalSvg. 

4.) Some common ones have a similar collateral form, (see above — fia for those 
in T]Q,) irUipa of 6, 77, 7r'nov,{fat,) 7rp6(bpa(y<ra of 6, rj, Trpofpwv {kind). 

5.) There are also older poetical simple forms, such as we have noticed of sub- 
stantives, (and which are likewise erroneously considered as abbreviations,) 
7rps(T(3a for Trpscr/Seipa, Xig for Xicrcr/} (smooth). 

6.) About evQ and rjvQ see the list of Anomcdous Nouns. 

7.) The facility with which (according to § 63, 2. &c.) adjectives may be 
formed of substantives, induced poets to make them as often as it suited 
their convenience, and to use them with isolated casus, of which the nomin. 
sing, frequently cannot even be presupposed, conformably to any correct 
analogy : as IpvodpixaTtQ V'ttttoi, (from apfia, arog,) rroXvapvi Qvicrry, (from 
the ge)i. dpvbg,) and the like. 

§ 65. — Of the Degrees of Comparison. 

(GRADUS COMPARATIONIS.) 

1. The Greek language has, like the Latin and English^ 
positive, (longj) comparative, (longer,) and supei^lative, (longest,) 
each of which is formed in the same way for the three genders 
and differs only in the terminations of the genders. 

2. The most usual forms of comparison are the terminations 

-rtpoc, a? ov, for the compar. and 
-roTi^Q^ 7|, ov, for the superl. 

3. Adjectives in oq reject the g before these terminations, 
and retain the o unchanged if they be preceded by a long 
syllable ; as j3tj5aiog, fiefdaioTepog, la^vporepog, TriaTOTarog : and 
also after a muta cum liquida, for instance, (7(l)oSpog (jcpo^poTarog, 
TTVKvog TTVKvoTspog (scc Buttm.. Complete Gi'eek Grammar, § 65. 
Obs. 2), 

4i. But when these terminations are preceded by a short 
syllable, o is changed into w, ex. gr. ao(^og o-o^wrtpoc^ Kuipiog 
Kaipiwrarog, lyygwTipog, Kadap(x)Tarog, &c. 

Obs. 1. There are, however, exceptions for the sake of the metre : the uj occurs 
in Epic poetry after a long syllable, as oiKvpwrarog, KaKo^eivojrepog, 'Homer, andin 
the Attic poets after mnta cum liquida, as ovaitOTnojTaTog, Eurip. 

Obs. 2. In some adjectives in eg there is more commonly ai or eg or ig inserted 
instead of this o or w, especially by the Attics ; for instance, 

1.) ukaog, fitaairfpog, fitcrairaTog ; 'iaog equal, 'ISiog peculiar, evdiog cheerful, 

Trpwiog early, o\piog late, rjcrvxog quiet. 
2.) £<T, especially by the Attics, ippiojxkvog strong, tppcofievtCTepog, Tarcg, and 



94 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

aKpuTog, unmixed, pure (§ 66. Obs. 2) ; sometimes a<f>9ovoQ, abundant, and 
several others in the dialects, as airovdaXog, Sec. 
3.) i<r : XdXog, XaXiorepoc, rarog ; 7rrw%6g, and otpocpdyog lickerish ; but the 
comnion form is also in use along with them. 
Obs. 3. Some adjectives in aiog, viz. yipaidg, old, 7ra\ai6g, ancient, axo\a~iog, 
sloiD, generally drop the o of the termination : yepairspog, TraXaiTarog. 

Obs. 4. ^i\og {dear) commonly does the same, or introduces ai : (piXrtpog, <piX- 
TUTog, or (piXairepog, (piXairaTog, sometimes ^iXdjTepog. For the Doric ^ivrepog, 
see § 16. Obs. 1. d. aajxtvog, when used as an adjective, has cKTixtvwTspog, dcrixevdj- 
TUTog ; but when used as an adverb cKTHsvairepa or dafievsaTepa. 

Obs. 5. Contracted adjectives in eog — ovg change fa> into w, for instance, wopcpvpsu)- 
rarog, TropcpvpujraTog, but those in oog — ovg, according to Obs. 2, take tg ^^ the re- 
solved form dwXoog, cnrXokaTaTog : hence the contraction is aTrXovg, dirXovaTarog. 
Obs. 6. Comparatives and superlatives communis generis terminating in eg are very 
rare, and never in the Attics, except sometimes those whose positive is communis, 
as Thuc. 3, 101. dvcrealSoXtoTaTog 7) AoKpig. But Homer has also oXodJraTog odfir). 

§ 66. 

1. Adjectives in vg barely drop the c - evpvg, Bvfyvrepogj svpv- 
rarog. 

2. Those in ag, gen. avog, do the same^ but resuming the Vy 
which has been rejected before the g : as imiXag, {gen, jucXavoc?) 
— juikavTepog. 

3. Adjectives in rjg and £ig convert those terminations into 
Eg, for instance aXriOrig, {gen. toe,) aXriOiaraTog, wivrig, {gen, 
rjTog,) TTEviaraTog, ^(^apLSig, \apd<JTaTog. 

4. All other adjectives take the form tfrrepoC) less frequently 
i(TT£pog, and undergo the same change as before the final sylla- 
bles of the cases ; for instance^ a(j)po)Vi {acppovog,) atpgov-iarepog, 
apira^, {apTrayog,) apTray-iGTaTog \ 

Obs. I. The end-syllable rjg of the fli'st decl. being, as we have seen above, (§ 63. 
Obs. 7-) frequently an adjective termination, allows a comparison, which always is 
-iaTarog, as /cXeTrrioTaroe from KXeirrrig {thief). Only v^piarrig {insulter) has for 
euphony's sake vjSpKXTOTepog. 

Obs. 2. '^evSrjg, sog, {false,) also has -[(jTspog, and according to the doctrine of 
grammarians the case is the same with dKpdrrjg, {immoderate,) because aKparicTTepog 
is the compar. of aKparog {pure). But in our editions, at least, we also meet with 
aKpareffTepog from the former word, {ex. gr. Xenoph. 3£e7n. 1, 2, 12.) just as we 
have eyicpaTS(TTepog from iyKparrjg {moderate). 

Obs. 3. The simplest form is in juasap iiaKaprarog, d^apig dxapi<yTSpog. 



1 In Xenoph. 3Iem. we twice meet with (iXaKtoTspog, ojrarog, (3, 13, 4. and 4, 
2, 20.) from /3Xa?. This is unquestionably wrong, because of the w, since the a in 
/3Xa^, jSXaKog, is long. The correct reading unquestionably is (SXaiciKOJTepog, 
TUTog : ior whenever a word did not I'eadily admit the degrees of comparison, they 
were generally made of the derivative form iKog. Compare § 63. Obs. 3. 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 95 

§67. 

1. Another, but far less frequent, form of comparison is : — ■ 

-Iwv, neuter lov, for the compar. 
-LCFTog, rj, ovy for the superl. 
See above in § 55. the decl. of this compar. 

2. This form of comparison is used in — 

1.) Some adjectives in uc, in this way, ri'^vq, r^diiovj ri^iarog : 
2.) Four in pog, dropping the p, viz. 

alaxpog, aldxtivv, aL(T\Larog, (shameful,) 

l\6pog, l\Biii)v, s^OiaTog, (inimical,) 

OLKTpbg, (olKTpoTspog,) oiicTicrrog, (mournful,) 

Kvdpog, KvBiiov, Kv^i(7Tog (glorious), 

3. In some compar. of this form the preceding consonant 
along with the l is changed into aa or tt : see Obs. 7. The 
adjective raxvg, (swift,) superl. raxi(^Tog, is written with a in 
the compar. 

Qaatjwv, neuter Oacrcrov, Attice OarTtov, OaTTov, 
whence it appears that the r in Ta^vg arose from a 9, according 
to § 18, 2. 

Obs. 1. This form of comparison always has the accent on the antepenultima, when 
the quantity of the last syllable allows it : hence, rjHg, rjdiujv, neut. ijdiov, i^Sktvos. 

Obs. 2. The i of this compar. is also used as short by poets, especially by Epic 
poets. 

05s. 3. Of the adjectives in vg, none but rjSvg and raxvQ commonly have this 
form : the remaining adjectives have either vTspog, vrarog, (as Sacriig, f3apvg,) or 
have both forms, in which case the forms iiov, KTTog are poetical. Thus in Homer, 
for instance, ^dOiffTog from (3a6vg, {deep,) ^paaawv, ^^a^iarog, or ^doBiGTog from 
j3padvg, {slow,) Trdcraojv, TrdxLffrog from ira^vg, {thick,) /3paxta>v, (^KicTTog, &c. 

Obs. 4. Of the adjectives ending in pog the following have this form of com- 
parison, viz. 

alffxpog, kx^pog, olicTpbg, Kvdpbg, 
and they also use the other collateral form more or less, but oiKTpbg never has the 
compar. in iuiv. The form twv, larog, appears to be derived from some old positives 
in vg. (See § 69. Obs. 1.) 

Obs. 5. We must also notice under this head fiOKpog, {long,) because of its compar. 
lj.d(T(Tujv, (for ixuKiujv,) iJ.r}KL(TTog. This change of the vowel in the superl. is like- 
wise found in the subst. to j-iriKog, {length,) and other derivatives. But here too 
fiaKpoTtpog, naKooTaTog, are more usual. 

Obs. 6. A few more comparatives of this form may be seen among the Anomalous 
Adjectives of the following sections. Some are used only by poets, as (piXiujv, 0iXi- 
CTog, from cpiXog. 

Obs. 7- Hither belong also the comparatives of advei'bs : ddffov, {nearer,) from 
dyxh (Hom.) and the frequently used fxaWov, {magis,) [xdXKxra from fidXa. 

§68. 
Several adjectives have an anomalous form of comparison. 



96 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

This anomaly mostly consists in forming their degrees from 
obsolete positives, and when there are more forms derived from 
one positive, (see ayaObg and KUKog,) each generally has one of 
the more particular meanings of that positive, or at least is 
preferred in some connexions. This must be left to the indi- 
vidual notice of the learner. 

Comparative, Superlative, 

1. ayaObg, {good,) ajiuvii)v, aiiHvov, {better^ agiaroQ, [best,) 

f5eXTiu)v, f3eXTL<jrog, 

Kpd(7a(x)v or KptirrMv, KQanaTog, 

Xwiwv, commonly Xtowv, Xwiarog, com- 
monly Xwaroc. 
We find in old poets the real compar, of apiarog, viz. a^eidyg ^, 
and of KpariGTog even the positive Kparvg. The lonians have 
Kpiaaojv instead of Kpdaawv, the Dorians KappMv, (for KAP- 
SONJ from another form oi^ the positive, whence comes also the 
adv. Kapra, [very much,) and the poetical superl. KapTiarog, The 
Epics have f^iXr^pog, Xwirepog, instead of PeXriwy, Xwtwv. (See 
§ 16. Obs. 1. d. about the Doric fdevriaTog.) 

2. KUKog^ {bad,) KaKiiov, KaKiaTog, 

■X^Eipiiyv, XEipiaTog, 

ri(T(7U)V or T^TTIOV, yjKKTTOg. 

The regular form KaKMrepog is used by poets. Instead of ^et- 
p(i)v the lonians have x^pdtjjv, and the Dorians ^^Pl^^uv. We 
find in the Epic poets the dat. x^P^h ^<^^' X^P^^y P^' X^P'^^^^ ^" 
X^p^i-(^ employed instead of the compar., though they are pro- 
perly the casus of an old positive XEPH2^. 

The comparative ^jcro-wv (Ion. taawv) only signifies worse, in- 
ferior, weaker, and is every where the opposite of Kpuaawv. The 
superl. seldom occurs as an adjective; the neut.pl. riKKxra occurs 
very frequently, but simply as an adverb. § 115, 71 

3. piyag, {great,) fiuZ^tjjv, (Ion. jmeZo^v,) jiiyLdrog, 

4. fxtKpog, {small,) f iXacrawv^ ttljv, cXa^toro^^ 

5. oXiyog, {little,) \ fidujv, oXiyiaTog. 

^ "AprjQ, the God q/ T^ar, probably identical with it, and the abstract subst. dpsrij, 
are still evidences of the positive. 

2 They commonly are considered as syncopated forms of the compar. (tlie same 
as irXkiQ,) but a comparison with the old German hasz, (whence the Germ, besser, 
the Engl, better,) which was used not merely as a positive, but also as a compar., 
authorises our view of the suljject. (See Luther's German Bible, Gen. 12, 13. 19,9.) 

^ It is an adjective in II. -if/. 531. according to the only correct reading. See 
Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 4. This form of comparison stood formerly very improperly 
under niKpuQ in Greek Grammars, merely because the adverbial form may be trans- 
lated into Latin minus, miuime. Kukoq is the only positive of ijttujv. 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 97 

As these two ideas are so nearly related^ the forms eXdcrawv, 
^\dxt(yTog, and /iddjv, serve alike to express the notions of small- 
ness and fewness. The old positive ^\a)(yg is still found in 
poets ; jLiiKpoTEpog, rarog, is likewise used : and poets have also 
the compar. oXl^wv, and siipei'l. jiuGTog. 

6. TToXvQ, [much,) 7r\d(jjv or ir\d(TTog, 

wXiiiJv, (more,) (most.) 

The Attics have also ttXeIv instead of the neut. TrXelov, but 
only in such a combination as ttXeTv rj fxyptoi. The lonians and 
Dorians make the contraction ttXeov, ttXeuv, irXioveg, ttXevveq. 
Homier has also irXkg, irXiag, in the plural, the positive instead 
of the compar.^ 

7. KoXog, [beautiful,) KaXXiojv, KaXXiGTog. 

8. paSiog, [easy,) pa(t)v, paarog. 

The lonians, with whom the positive is prjidiog, have pri'Ciijv, 
priidTog, the Epics pr^trEpog, rarog, all from PAIS, PH12 : and 
from its neut, pi. PHIA came the adv. pda, pm [easily). 

9. aXyuvog^ [grievous,) aXytiov, dXyiGTog. 

But the regular form aXyeivorspog, Tarog, is more usual in 
the masc. and fern, 

10. iriirwv, {ripe,) ireTrahspog, ireTraiTarog. 

11. TTitov, [fat,) TTiorepog, TTiorarog. 

Obs. The old superl. in arog is peculiar to poets, fkiaroQ, (^middlemost,) from fxscrog, 
andoivsoQ, (neic,) vsarog, veiarog, (last,) of which the contracted /em. vfjrr] denotes, 
in prose, the loicest (with us the highest) string of a musical instrument. 

§ 69. 

1. There are also defective degrees of comparison without 
any positive, (see the Obs.) and several of the above anoma- 
lous forms, like yittojv, Kpurrhyv, Xwarog, &c., may be considered 
as such. 

2. Under this head must also be ranked those w^hich denote 
a sequence, and whose positive is mostly a particle, referring to 
place or position : for instance, 

TrpoTEoog, [prior,) -wpiorog, [primus,) from irpo, [before ;) 
vwsprepog, rarog, and virarog, [higher, highest,) from viTEp, 

[over, above;) 
e(Txarog, [extreme, outermost,) from l^, [out of ;) 
varepog, vararog, [later, the latest,) from vtto; 

* Compare the note to x^PVh &c- J foi' TrXIsg is obviously an abbreviation of 
TToXug, as the compar. rrXeiiov itself is derived from tliis abbreviation of TroXvg. 

H 



98 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

and such comparisons as are formed of adverbs ; ex. gr, 

7rXr?(TtaiT£poC) raroc, from ttXtjo-ioc, i^iear ; as in Latin prope, 

propior, p7^oximus.) 
TTpovpyiaLTEpog, rarog, from irpovpyov. 
rtpsjUL^cFTepogi rarog, from rjpEjua. 

7repaLT£pog is better to be derived from -rripa, ir^pav, {be- 
yond,) although there is an adject. jrEpaXog \ 
3. Sometimes degrees of comparison are given to substan- 
tives which may be taken in an adjective sense ; for instance, 
traiipog {friend) makes haipoTurog, KXlnrrig, {thief,) KXeTrxicrra- 
Tog. (See § 66. Obs. 1.) 

Obs. 1. Some old grammarians erroneously ranked among compar. and superl., 
made of substantives, some defective ones in kov and torog, of which there is a kin- 
dred abstract subst. in og, as piyicjv, {inore Jiorrible,) Kepdiarog, {most crafty,) v\pi<Trog, 
(most high ;) substantives, to plyog, {shuddering,) Kepdog, {cunning,) v^pog, {height,) and 
some of the above-mentioned deviations are explained in the same way ; for in- 
stance, exdi(TTog from rb ixOog, {hatred,) fJn'iKLcrrog fi'om ixrJKog, Qength,) KaWiarog from 
KoKXog, {beauty,) &c. But it is unquestionable that these subst. and those compar. 
and superl, rather presuppose a cori'esponding positive, and this is so much the more 
certain, since the positive of some few of them may actually be found in the old 
poets ; ex. gr. Kparvg, from which comes Kpariarog, and to Kparog, sXeyx^^Q, {shame- 
ful,) eXsyxto-Tog, and to eXtyx^Q' Compare § 119, 3. e. and 10. d. 

06s. 2. The poets, especially the Epics, have sevei*al of those degrees of compa- 
rison belonging to this section ; for instance, (psprepog, (pspTUTog and (p'spidTog, {braver, 
most excellent,) which may be considered as belonging to dyaOog : — icvvTspog, (more 
impudent,) from kvwv, Kvvbg, jSadiXivrepog, {more powerful,) from fSaaiXevg, Tcv^aTog, 
fivXO-Tog, oTrXoTepog, and others, which are sufficiently explained in dictionaries. 

06s. 3. We meet but vei'y rarely with compar. and superl. made of a word which 
already expresses a degree of comparison ; they give greater intensity to its signifi- 
cation ; for instance, saxaTOJraTog, 7rpo)Ti(rTog. Expressions of this kind are found in 
later writers, not Attics. When Epic poets at times combine both forms of a compar. 
as x^^poTtpog, fxaoTepog, it is done for the sake of the metre, and not to strengthen the 
expression. 

Obs. 4. The more ancient language had also a termination of derivative adjec- 
tives in Tspog, which must not be confounded with that of the comparative ; ex. gr. 
dypoTspog, {rural,) dpsarepog, {on the mountains,) OrjXvTspog (as QriXvg, feminine). 

OF NUMERALS. 

§ 70. — Cardinal Numbers. 

1. a. Hg, jiiia, tv, gen. Ivog, juiiag, kvog, ' one.' 

There is an anomalous change of accent in juia, funag, fiia, 
fxiav. Epic poets have also instead of this /em. la, gen. 
\r\g. 

1 We frequently meet with compar. and superl. of civoj, 'ivdov, &c. as dvutTtpog, 
ivSoTUTog, Sec. ; but they are m many places obvious corruptions of the adverbial 
form avwTspu). See § 115, and 125. 



NUMERALS. 



From the composition of this word with the negatives ovSh 
and fxri^l arise the negative adjectives, 
ov^^tg, ovdefiia, ov^lv, and 
/LLrjEsLQ, iur]deiuia, /xrjSfy, no one, none. 
They retain in their decl. the accent of a^ ; ov^evoq, ov^e/iiac, &c. 
The separation of ov^e ug, jurjBl ev, Sac, in writing, gives in- 
tensity to the negative signification, not even one, not the least. 
Several Greek writers, mostly later ones, have also ovOetg, neut, 
Iv, but ih.efem. as usual. 

2. /3'. Suo, [nomin, ace.) ^volv, {gen. dat.) two. 

The Attics have ^vuv, but merely in the gen. : they also 
use ^vo as indeclinable in the gen. and dat. Un- Attic 
are N. A. Bvtt), G. Svujv, D. Suat, dvaiv : Ion. ^vo7<tiv : Epic 
Soiw and ^olo\, which is completely declined. The word 
afKjytj, {both,) is noticed below, § 78. 

3. y\ TpuQ, {comm.) rpla, {neut.) three, gen. rpLwv, dat. Tpia-\{v), 
ace. like the nom. 

4. ^. riaaapeg or TaTTapEg,four, neut. a, gen. wv, dat.riafjapcn, 
rhrapdi, {poet, rerpaai,) ace. ag, a. 

Ion. Ttdcrepeg, Dor. rirropEg, Ttropeg, old and JEol. iriavpeg. 
The remaining simple numbers up to te7i, and the decimal 
ones up to a hundred, are not declined at all. 

I. UKa ... 10 

K. UKOGL or GLV 20 

A^ TpiaKOVTa . 30 
JUL. Te<T(7apaK0VTa 40 
v'. 7revT{]K0VTa . 50 

Not only the long a in rpiaKovra, but also the short one in tscf- 
aapaKovra, is converted by the lonians into r?: rpi7]K0VTa, rea- 
cTtpriKovTa. Other Ionic and Epic forms are hiKoai, oySco- 
Kovra, IvvrjKOVTa, Doric izifnTE, 5, EiKari, 20. 
The compounds with ten commonly are — 



f . Tnvre 


. . U 


r'. m . 


. . 6 


4 . f Trra . 


. . 7 


y{. OKTIO . . 


. 8 


6\ Ivvia 


. . 9 



2'. kE,r)KOVTa . . 60 
o'. tj3dofi{]KOVTa 70 
tt'. oySoriKOVTa . 80 

(. IveVTjKOVTa . 90 

p'. iKarbv . . 100 



la. 


evdeica . . 


11 


i^\ TeaGapEGKai- 




f^'. ETTTaKaicEKa 


. 17 


</3' 


^w^tKa 


12 


Bbku . . 


14 


ITf]. OKTMKai^EKa 


. 18 


ly. 


TpiGKaideKa 


13 


le. TTEVTEKaiSeKa 
f^'. EKKaidEKa 


15 
16 


l9\ EvvEaKai^EKa 


. 19 



AEKarpEtg, ^EKciirEvTE, &c., occur but seldom. TpEXg and TEcrarapEg 
are also declined in these compositions ; for instance, TE(j(Tapa- 
Kai^EKa, TEaaapaiKai^Eica, ^EKarpiMV, &c. 

Avu)^£Ka and dvoKai^EKa are Ionic and poetical. The forms 

H 2 



100 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

TpKTKaidEKa, iKKai^EKa, show that the rest of the numbers com- 
bined by KoX up to 19, must not be written separate. Tt(T(yepE(T- 
Kai^BKa is indeclinable in Ionic, (ea;. gr. Herod. 1^ 86. has it 
twice.) 

The rest of the compound numbers are usually written sepa- 
rate, and when the small number precedes, the two are joined 
by KOI ; if it comes last, the conjunction generally is omitted; 
for instance, Trtvrg koI hkoglv, or et/coo-i ttevte ; 32, rpiaKOVTa dvo, 
or Suo Km TpiaKOvra. 

The round numbers after 100 are regularly declined : 



3,000. p/. tpkj^lXlol. 

4,000. ^S. TeTpaKi(TX,iXioi. 

5,000. ^f. 7revTaKi(j\L\ioi. 

6,000. ^<5'. f$aK:f(7\tAfot. 

7,000. ^Z. tTrTaKL(T)(^iXioL. 

8,000. ^rj. 6K:raK:tcr;)(tXfot. 

9,000. fi, evvaKi(T)(^LXioi. 

10,000. /. juvpiOL, at, a \ 

20,000. K. di(7iivpLoiy etc. 



200. a'. ^luKOdLoi, ai, a. 
300. r. rpiuKoaioi. 

400. V. TerpOLKOCTLOl. 

500. (j)'. irevTaKoaioi, 

600. ^. t^OLKOaiOl. 

700. \p'. liTTaKocnoi, 

800. (jj\ OKTaKOaLOL. 
900. ^ . lvvaKO<JLOL. 

1,000. ^a. \i\lol, at, a, 
2,000. ^/3. ^irrxiXiOL. 

The a in Sia and rpidKoaioL is long : lonice ^l^koglol, &c., Iwia- 
XlXoi, StKax^Xoi are old forms in Homer. These large numbers 
may be used as collectiva in the sing, : ^laKoaia "lttitoq {t} iTnrog, 
cavalry). 

Obs. 1 . Instead of the numbers compounded with 8 and 9, a frequent use is made 
of a circumlocution ; for instance, instead of 49, we find evbg Ssovrog (or fxiag 
deovcrrjQ) 7rsvTr]KovTa,Yiz. 50,less 07ie ortoaiiting one, dvoTv dtovroiv 7rsvr')]KOVTa,48, 
and also evbg or dvolv dsovreg, the verb dtiv signifying both to be in want of and to waM. 

Obs. 2. When other words are compounded with these numbers, the Greek has 
for the unit jiovo — {ixovog, single,) iov 2 di — for 3 rpt — and for 4 rerpa, as juov6/cf ptof, 
diKspijjg, di<rv\Xaf5og, duTTjg, (trog,) diwlSoXov, {6j3o\bg,) TpiTrovg, rtrpaTTOvg, &c.2 
The rest of the numbers are generally joined with a and o, as Trevrd-fitrpog, k^d- 
ycjvog, eiKoad-edpog, TrsvTrjKovTO-yvog, tKarovTa-fxvalog, ■xiXio-rdXavTog. Yet we 
also find Trevrtvata, eicaToix-TrvXog, eic7rT]xvQ> i'^^)) and the like. The lonians make 
of Ivvea, dvd-Trrixvg, &c. In these combinations the a sometimes remains before a 
vowel, and sometimes not ; the o is always dropped or contracted in the compounds 
with Irog {year) ; hence we have eTrTaETrjg, {of seven year's,) better eTrrsTijg, rpiaKov- 
Ta'srrjgj or TpiaKovTovrrjg (for osrrjg ^). Observe likewise evvasTrjg, {of nine years, 
nine years old,) and tvvrjixap {for or during nine days). 



* Mvpioi, many, numberless, is contradistinguished from it by the accent. 

2 The composition with ^ig-, rpig-, is used only when the meaning of dig, Tpig, 
tv'ice, thrice, must be expressed, as in diuQavrig (Homer), haiivpioi, diat<p9og, rpia- 
dOXiog, and the like. 

3 These words have eog, ovg, in the gen. and are generis communis ; but they also 
have a fern, in ig. TpuiKovTovTideg cyirovdai. 



NUMERALS. 



101 



^ 71. — Ordinal Numbers and other derived ones, 

1. The ordinal numbers are adjectives of three terminations, 
the first two of which are two defective forms of comparison. 
See § 69, 2. 



1. irpCjTog or, in speaking 

of two, TTpOrepOQ 

2. ^SVTepOQf a, ov ^ 

3. rpLTog, 17, ov 

4. riraproQ 

5. TrefiTrrog 

6. eKTog 

7. sjSdojULog 

8. oydoog 

9. 'ivarog and 'ivvarog 

10. ^EKarog 

11. av^EKarog 

12. StjSiKaTog 

13. TpiGKaiEtKarog 

14. r£(7(7apaKai^£K:aroc 

15. TTSvTEKaidiKaTog 

16. EKKai^EKarog 

17. £7rra/catS£Karoc 



18. OKroKatSaicaroc 

19. EvveatcaiSlicaroc 

20. ElKoarbg 

21. fiKooToc 7rpwroc:> or 

TrpWTOg KoX ElKO(TTOg, 

&c. 

30. TpiaKOCTTOg 

40. Tfcro-apaKOo-Toc 
50. TTEvrriKOrTTbg 
60. £^TjKoa-roc 

70. E(5SoiJ.rjKO(TTOg 

80. o-ySorjKoa-roc 

90. EV£Vr}KOGTOg 

100. EKarocTTog 

200. 8mKO(7tocrroc5 &C. 

1,000. ;)(tXtocrroc 

2,000. §t(7;;(fXtocrroc 

10,000. pvpiocTTog, &C, 



The interrogative ttocttoc^ quotus ? is answered by an ordinal 
number ^. 

Tirparog is used instead of reraproc for the sake of the 
metre ; the lonians have Eivarog instead of Evvarog, 
Evarog : the Epics have rpiraTog, EJ3^6parog, oy^oarog t; 
the Dorians irparog for irptoTog. 

2. The numeral adverbs answering the question. How man^ 
times? soce: aira^, [once,) ^Ig, rpig, TErpaKig, irEVTciKLg, ofcraiciCv 
EvvECLKig or EvvcLKig, EKaTovTCLKig, xiXiaKig, &c. [poet. -Ku) Inter- 
rogative, TTOcraKLg. 

3. Multiples answering the question, Hoiv manifold F are 
cnrXoog, contr. aTrXouc^ {simple,) dnrXovg, rpiTrXovg, TErpairXovgi 
&c. (see § 60.) or also ^nrXacriog, &c. 

4. Numbers as subst. all end in ag, gen. a^og ; as, 17 fiovag^ 
[unity,) ^vag, rpiag, TETpag, iTEVTag, (also TTEjiTrrag and TTEfiirag,) 
E^ag, EJ5^0fiag, oydoag, EVVEag, ^EKag, &c., flfcac? rpiuKag, rfcrcra- 
paKOvrag, &c., EKUTOVTag^ ^iXiag, fivpuig, 

1 The superl. hvrarog, {last,) made of it, is merely poetical. 

2 Further '7roXkoc>Tbg,oneofinany,6\iyo(yTbQ,oneoffew. Hence to iroWoffrbv 
fjikpoQ, one of many pai-ts, viz., a very small pai-t. 



102 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

PRONOUNS. 
§ 71 a. — Division of Pronouns, 

1. The division of the pronouns is supposed to be known 
from the Latin grammar; the following §§ therefore treat of 
them according to their etymological order. In order to facili- 
tate the review of all pronouns, see the following illustra- 
tions. 

2. The pronouns are usually divided into three classes : 
1, into pronouns substantive, that is to say, which are used 
instead of substantives or persons ; 2, into pronouns adjective, 
which are for the most part used for adjectives^ yet sometimes 
also for substantives ; 3, into pronouns adverb, which are used 
instead of adverbs. 

I. Pron. substantivum. 

1. pron. personalia lytb, ah, t, § 72, 3. 

2. pron. reflexiva Ifxavrov, aavTov, laurou, &c. § 74, 3. 

3. pron. reciprocum aXX/jXwv, &c. § 74, 4. 

4. pron. indefinit. 6, 17, to Setva, § 73. 

II. Pron. adjectivum. 

1. pron. demonstrativa; to these belong 
the art. prsepos. 6, rj, ro, § 75. 
ovTogf avTY], tovto, this, &c. § 76, 2. 
ode, i]d£, rode, this, &c. § 76, 1. 
iKHvog, 7}, o, that, yon, § 74, 1. 

avTon, 17, 6, himself, &c. § 74, 1. 6 avTOQ, ibid. 2. 

2. pron. relativa ; to these belong 

the art. postpos. oq, rj, 6, with the strengthened 

forms oaTTEp, &c. who, &c. § 78. 
6<jTig, riTig, ort, who, &c. § 77, 3. 

3. pron. interrogativum r/c, rt, who? what P § 77, 1. 

4. pron. indefinit. t\q, tI, some one, &c. § 77, 1. 

5. pron. possessiva Ijuloq, Ijiri, Ifiov, my, gov, &c. § 72, 4. 

6. pron. correlativa. See § 78 and 79. 

III. Pron. adverbiale. 

To this class belong those pronouns which are derived from 
adverbia modi, loci, temporis. See § 116. 

§ 72. — Pronouns Substantive and Possessive. 

1. The pronouns substantive ov personal of the first and second 
persons are lyw, I, rifie'lg, we, av, thou, vixug, (long v,) you. 



PRONOUNS. 



103 



ov 
ol 

£ 



2. The pronoun of the third person has no longer its nom, 
sing., hke t ^, the Latin se, with which it also corresponds in 
the Attic language in its reflective signification. In the plural 
it has a particular form for the neuter, which, however, occurs 
but rarely. 

Obs. 1. This provoun is altogether not frequent in the Attic writers ; for even iu 
its reflective signification they prefer the compound kavrbv (§ 74, 3) ; and in the 
direct sense of liiiii, her, it, they employ the oblique cases of the pronoun avTog, 
§ 74:, 2. It occurs more frequently in the Ionic and Epic writers, who use it indis- 
criminately for him, her, and it, and for the Latin se. (See the Syntax, § 127. about 
this reflective pronoun.) 

3. These pronouns are declined thus : — 

thou, the Latin Se : 

cru 

crou 

aoi 
\ 

0-£ 

you tivo, 

yoih 

vfxug 

VjUiU)V 
VfMV 

vfxaq 

Obs. 2. The oblique cases of the second and third person are enclitical, yet, 
according to the principles of § 14. Obs. 7- they may also be orthotoned. It is only 
the monosyllabic form of the cases of £ya>, which is enclitic ; when orthotoned, the 
disyllabic form must be used. Of the forms beginning with cr^, only the oblique 
cases of the third person, and the forms of dialects noticed in the sixth Observation, 
are enclitic ; yet (jcpCJv and a^ag with the circumflex are excepted, but in their 
resolved form, {crcp'eojv, (xcpkag, Obs. 6, 8.) and when a^ag is made short by Poets, 
they also are enclitic. 

06s. 3. When one of these pronouns has a preposition prefixed, it generally con- 
tinues orthotoned, as Trepl aov, iv aol, Trapd a(piaiv, and, consequently, (of gyw,) — 
Kar ejj,e, i% kjxov ^. 

Obs. 4. The particle ye (§ 149, 2.) is often appended to these jjronouns for the 
sake of emphasis, in which case syw, sjjioi, and kfik throw the accent back : iycjye 
(equidem), g/iotye , tfitye, avyt, &c., and the oblique cases of av cease to be encliti- 
cal ; ex. gr. fxi] cr'tye. 

Obs. 5. The oblique cases of rjixng and v}.tng are, according to grammarians, 
equally capable of being inclined, and in every instance, when they ai'e enclitics. 



Smg, 


/, 


Nom. 


eyw 


Gen. 


Ijuiov, and juov 


Dat. 


£jLioi, and /LLoX, 


Ace. 


lfjL£, and jUB, 


Dual, 


We both, 


N.A. 


vCj'l, Vli), 


G.D. 


vCSLv, vioV) 


PL 


We,^ 


Nom. 


-njUsTg 


Gen. 


Vjuojv 


Dat. 


rjiULv 


Ace. 


-hfJ-ag 



G(pw'iv 

(T(l>ug, neut, acpia, 

<j(f)C)v 

(K^iGiiy) 

Gipag, neut. a^ia. 



^ See about this very rare nomin. and its actual occurrence in Attic writers, 
Buttm. Cumj^lete Greek Grammar. 

2 Some grammarians excepted only -rrpog [xe, and it really occurs mostly thus in 
the Attic writers. See Buttm. Complete Gi\ Gr. and Jacobs' Free/, ad Anthol. 
p. 32. 



10-1 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

instead of throwing their accent on the preceding word, tliey draw it back : rjfxojv, 
yjxiv, vfiiv, &c., which rule, liowever, is not generally observed in our editions. 
Obs. G. Dialects. 

1. The Dorians and Epics have an old form syojv for gyw. 

2. The Dorians have rv for ai), and in the enclitic ace. again rv. The ace. re 

occurs rarely, and only orthotoned (Theocr. 1, 5); even the Dorians and 
Cohans retain as instead of it. Tvvrj is an old form of the nomin. with 
the Epics. 

3. In the dat. the Dorians and loniaus have rot for aol, but only when it is 

enclitic. 

4. The gen. ou of these pronouns comes from eo, hence the Epic poets have 

Ifjieo, aeo, eo, 
or ijxuo, ciio, €io, whence the lonians and Dorians have s/xfT;, iitv, aev, tv, 
(see § 28. Obs. 5.) and the Dorians instead of asv also rtu and rtvQ. The 
gen. tsoTo for aso, asTo, IL 9. 37. is quite anomalous. 

5. The Poets make use of a peculiar gen. formed by the appendage of (compare 

§ IIG.) the syllable Otv: 

tfxsOev, <rk9tv, s9ev, 
whereof Wsv, in its direct meaning, {Obs. 1.) is enclitical ; for instance, 
II. a. 114. 
C. 'Efilv, Tiv or Tstv, lu, (with the sp. lenis,) are oi'thotoned (§ 14.) Doric 
datives for kfxol, crol, ol. (Yet riv sometimes is only aec, Theocr. 11.) 

7. The old lonism of the Epics lengthens the pronoun of the third person with 

an 6, gen. eeio, dat. eol, ace. ee. This form (like £/io{)) is always orthotoned. 

8. The lonians resolve the contraction of the pi. and say rjixseg, viistg, a<p6eg, 

gen. ryjuawv, &c. {Epice, r/ndcov, &c.) ace. yfikag, &c. 

9. Poets shorten the end-syllables iv and ag — rjfjilv, vfilv, Vfjidg, vfiag, (J<pag. 

If enclitic {Obs. 5.) they are written rjniv, &c. 

10. The final syllable of the nomin. aiieg, vfxeg is also shortened by the Dorians, 

and in the ace. they take the {dual) termination e — afik, v^h, for ryjua^, 
viidg, all with the a and v long. This change of pronunciation and accent 
gives the following old JSolic form, which the Epic poets have retained : 

Norn, dfifxeg, vfxfisg, 

Dat. dfJiixXv, vfiixiv, or dfiixX, v^m, 

Ace. o-nne, vfifxe. 
If ajxe or ajwjue also occurs instead of ifxe, (Theocr. 11, 42.) it is the same 
figure by means of which rifjislg often is used for gyw. Compare Obs. 7? 2. 

1 1. There is a similar abbreviation of the pi. of the third person, 

Dat. Cipi ox ccplvf 

Ace, a^e, 
both enclitic. The Attic poets also make use of the ace. ccpe, but in all 
numbers (for avTov, riv^b, and avrovg, dg, a). S^iv is very rarely used for 
the sing. See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 17, 14. 

12. Lastly there is another enclitic ace. of the third person, 

Ion. fxlv, Dor. and Att. viv, 
which also is used for all the genders and numbers, but only in the direct 
meaning {Obs. 1.) of him, her, it, pi. them. The Attics make use of their 
viv merely in poetry. 



4. The pronouns possessive derived from these personal pro- 
nouns are regular adjectives of three terminations. They are 
generally formed from the gen. sing, in this manner : 



PRONOUNS. 105 

gen. Ijuov gives Ifiog, Ijun), Ifiovi my. 
gen. gov „ <yog, en), aov, thy. 
gen. ov ,, og, rj, ov, his, (of the /em.) her. 
And from the nomin. thus : 

■nfiug gives YiimiTEpog, a, ov, our, 
vjuetg „ vfierspog, a, ov, your. 
o-^ac 35 (T^sVepoe, a, ov, their. 
The pronouns possessive of the third person sing, and plur. 
are frequently expressed in prose by the gen. of pronouns sub- 
stantive. For particulars on this point, see Syntax, § 127, 7. 

Ohs. 7. Dialects: 

1.) The Dorians and lonians have instead of ahq — teoq^ a, (>),) bv, and for oq, 
— koQ, a, ijj,) ov. — With regard to the pi'etended form kr]OQ, see above the 
Anom. evg, with the note. 
2.) There is an old shorter form for the possessive ^:)?., 

afjibg, ?), bv, vfJ^bg, r), ov, OfpOQ, V, bv, 
used by the Dorians and Epic poets, but the latter pronounce the first 
person with the sj). lenis, 

dfj-bg, i), ov : 
the Attic poets do the same, yet only in the meaning of the sing, (for kubg 
compare Ohs. 6, 10) ; for instance, Eurip. Electr. 555. Soph. Electr. 588. 
Ohs. 8. Poets also make of the dual of the first and second person 
vCj'i — vojtTspoQ both our, of us both, 
(T^oji — ffcpmrepog, both your, of you both. 

§73. 

We must also rank among the pronouns personal 

6, 7], TO Sava, a certain person, some one, such and such a one, 
(the French un tel) : it is declined 

nom. and ace. Bdva, gen. ^eTvog, dat. delvt, 
pi* ol delv^g, &c. 

Obs. It is sometimes, though very rarely, indechnable : for instance, rbv dtXva, 
Tov Tov ddva {ylbv), Aristoph. Thesm. 622. 

§74. 

1. The following four pronomina adjectiva are regularly de- 
clined, except that they have o in the neuter : 

avTog, avrri, avTo, himself, herself, itself; 
EKELvog, EKHVY}, Ikuvo, tMs, that, yon ; 
aXXog, aXX-q, aWo, other ; 
og, ^\ o, see § 75. 

Obs. 1. The loniaus are fond of introducing an a in some forms of avrbg, as 
avTST], avTSojv. (§ 28. Obs. 3,) 

06s. 2. 'EKitvog comes from IksI, yonder, in that place. The Ionic form is Kslvog, 



106 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

1], 0, and the Doric Ttjvog, a, o. The JEolic was Krjvog. — See § 29. Ohs. C. about 
wWoi for 01 dWoi. 

2. The pronoun avrog has three significations : 1.) self; 2.) in 
the oblique cases, him, her, it ; 3.) with the article, the same. 
See the Syntax. We merely observe that in the last significa- 
tion it frequently coalesces with the article, (according to § 29. 
Obs. 4.) and in this instance the neuter is both in ov and o : 
hence 

6 aiirog-, r) avrrj, ravro and ravrov 

ravTOv, Trig avrrig, ravTOV 

ravTto, TavTy, ravTio, &C. 
The forms Tavrij and ravra, especially when the coronis ' is 
wanting, must not be confounded with Tavrri and Tavra from 
ovTOQ, § 7Q. — See about the lonisms wvrog, tijjvto, § 29. Obs. 6. 

3. It is with avTog that is formed 

the pronoun reflective, 
which being compounded with the ace. of the pronouns personal 
(£jU£, gI, a) is declined thus in the oblique cases : 

gen. IjiavTov, kfiavTr,Q, dat. lfxavT<^, y, ace. IjuLavrbv, rjv, of 

myself to myself myself, 
gen. cFsavrov, or davrov, &c. of thyself to thyself thyself, 
gen. iavrov, or avrov. &c. of himself or herself Sec. neuter 
accus. iavTo, avTo. 
The two words of the two first persons in the pi. are written 
separately ; the third is declined like the former : 
gen. yijuljv avrojv, dat, rjfuv avrolg, aig', 
ace. i^fiag avTovg, ag. 

gen. vfxujv avriovy dat. vfxlv avrolg, aig, &o. 
gen. iavrwv or avrCjv, dat. iavTolg or avTolg, alg ; 
ace, iavrovg, or avTOvg, ag, a. 

Obs. 3. Originally the sing, was also naturally written separate. Homer still has 
aoi avT<^, ol avr<^. We likewise find separately in his works, e avrijv, kyi avrov, 
&c. 11. a. 271. ?. 1G2. l. 490 ; and Od. %. 185. ra a avTov, a avrrjg, (or aavroii, 
rJQj) is considered as an elision of to. ad. 

Obs. 4. In these compositions the lonians have <dv instead of av, (§ 27. Obs. 1, 
11.) and commonly do not elide the £ in the first person. They say Ijugwurov, 
atutvTovj ecjvTov, &c. — See about iowrsijv, &c. Obs. 1. 

4. But it is with nWog that is formed 

the reciprocal proJioun 
in the strictest sense ^ : 

' It is thus called, because it is used when the action of the verb falls upon the 
subject. The distinction between reflective and reciprocal is sufficiently clear in 



ARTICLES. 107 

gen. aXXi}\(i)v, dat. aWiiXoig, aig, acc. aX\i']Xovg^ ag, a, 
dual, a\\i]\(i}, a^ oiv, aiv, one another. 
This dual serves for an action which is reciprocal between 
two individuals ; but the plural may be used equally well in 
such cases. 

§ 75. — The Articles. 

1. The Greek grammarians give the name of articles (ra 
apOpa) to the two simplest adjective-like designations of subst., 
which in a proposition have a reference to each other in two 
connected sentences. One of these designations is called in 
modern languages the definite article (the), the other the pro- 
noun relative {ivho, which^). 

2, Of these two articles one is 

Articulus prcspositivus, 
O} v, TO, the, 
which is declined like the pronomina adjectiva, § 74^ except that 
1.) the nomin. sing, and pi. of the masc. and fern, gender 
are unaccented, (§ 10, 4,) and have the spiritus asper ; 
in all the other cases a r is prefixed. 
2.) not only the neuter, as in the adj. pronouns, but also 
masc. in the nom. sing, ends in o (6). 
The other is the 

Articulus postpositivus, 
og, fj, o, who, which. 
This is declined exactly like the pronomina adjectiva, § 74, 1. 

English, the reflective verb being constnied with self, and the reciprocal with one 
another, each other. The word reciprocal comprises in some degree both cases ; 
hence some grammarians call reciprocal what wo call reflective. 

^ The following is a proposition in which the two Greek cirizW^s occur : 'This 
is the man icho will save us,' ovtoq kariv b avnp, og athau ijucig. As these two 
little words act like articulations, and join two sentences like joints of limbs, the 
Greeks called them tu dpOpa, articuli, joints. But that the first of these two 
articles, 6, r], to, {the,) often stands alone in an unconnected sentence, and strictly 
speaking acts no longer as a joint, is owing to the circumstance, that in a great 
variety of such instances we keep the reference in our minds ; for instance, the 
man was here, i.e. the man ichom you know, the man of %chom ?ce spoke before, or some- 
thing of that sort. Hence language gradually annexed the articulus prcepositivus, 
'the,' to any object which was considered as sufficiently designated by a previous 
observation or by circumstances. The grammars of modern languages retauaed 
the denomination of article for this articulus prcepositivus, without attending to its 
origin ; but gave to the articulus j^ostpositivus, very properly on considering it by 
itself, the name of the pronoim relative. And as in modern languages another pro- 
noun, A, AN, which in fact is nothing but a feebler rig, ri, quidam, designates inde- 
termined objects, just as the designates determined ones, the latter (the) was 
called the definite, and the former (a, an) the indefinite article, though these words 
have nothing of the nature of articulations or joints. In a Greek granmiar we 
ought to abide by the old Greek denominations, since they are so well founded. 
But articles are needlessly considered as parts of speech in any grammar. They 
really are pronomina adjectiva. 



108 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 





Articulus praepositivus, 


Articulus posfpositivus, 






the, 






who, which. 


Sing, 


M. 


K 


N. 


M, 


F. 


N. 


Norn. 


o, ^ 


■n, 


ro,^ 


%' 


V, 


h 


Gen. 


TOV, 


rriQ, 


TOV, 


ov. 


^c, 


ov, 


Dat. 


TW, 


ry, 


'^^y 


^h 


r 


r 


Ace. 

Tiiinl 


TOV, 


TTJV, 


TO, 


8v, 


fjv, 


o, 


UU/UVm 

N.A. 


TW, 


ra. 


TbJ, 




a. 




G.D. 


ToiVy 


TOLV, 


Toiv, 


61 V, 


alv. 


olv. 


Plur. 














Nom. 


oi. 




ra, 


oi. 


ai, 




Gen. 


TLJV, 


rwv, 


TWV, 


"0>V, 


(bv, 


wv, 


Dat. 


rote, 


rate. 


Tolq, 


oIq, 


atcj 


olg, 


Ace. 


Tovg, 


rag, 


ra. 


ovg, 


Se, 


L 



Obs. 1. The deviations in the dialects are the same as in the end-syllables of the 
first and second decl. ; for instance, toXo for rov, a for rj, rag for Trjg, &c. Homer 
has, though but rarely, oov for the gen. ov of the articulus postpositivus. 

Obs. 2. Both articles were alike in form in the old language, and were only dis- 
tinguished by their position and accent, as is still the case with rj, oi, a'l. The 
Epic poets have also o, (incorrectly 6,) for og, and all the forms of the art. proep., 
which begin with r, are likewise used by the lonians and Dorians for the coi're- 
sponduig forms of the postpositivus ; 

TO for 0, TTjv for i)v, &c. 
The Dorians also have rol, ral, for both ol, ai, and oi, a'L 

Obs. 3. The two articles are in fact nothing but the old simple pronoun demon- 
strative, (tJiis,) and are frequently employed for it in the works of the ancients in 
many contexts even in prose, as is shown in the Syntax. See the usual pronouns 
demonstrative derived from it in the following Section. 

3. The articulus postp., or simple pronoun relative, is strength- 
ened in several combinations, partly by the enclitic particle irep, 
{oairsp, wTTEp, rJTTfp, &c.) partly by being compounded with the 
pronoun rig [oarig, &c.). See § 77, 3. 

Obs. 4. With regard to the enclitic r^,- which in Epic poetry is appended to og, as 
og Ts or oare for og, ovts or rovre for ov, see § 149, under re. 



§ 76. 

1. The Greek has a double form for the general pronoun de- 
monstrative, ^ this,' One is made by appending the enclitic ^e, 
(§ 14. Obs. 3.) to the articulus pr(Bp. : 

o^e, ri^E, To^iE, gen. Tovds, Triads, &e. plur. olds, aide, tcl^e, 
Tovcrde, &e. 

2. The other form ovrog comes from the same article, and 
conforms itself entirely to it in its very anomalous decl. 
Wherever the article has the spiritus asper or the t, the pronoun 



PRONOUNS. 



109 



has the same ; and where the article has o or w, the pronoun has 
in the first syllable ou, but where the article has rj or a, the 
pronoun has av : for instance, 6 — oSroc, ol — ovroi, tCjv — rovrixWy 
7] — avTY], ra — Tavra^ &C. 

Sinff. Plur. 

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut, 



Nom. 


OVTOQ, aVTl], 


TOVTO, 


ovTOi, avTai, 


TavTa, 


Gen. 


TOVTOV, raVTYiQ, TOVTOV, 


i TOVTUJV, TOVTCOV, 


TOVTUJV 


Dat. 


TOVTCj), TaVTTI, 


TOVTlt), 


TOVTOig, TavTaig, 


TOVTOLg 


Ace. 


TOVTOV, TaVTTlV, TOVTO, 


TovTOvg^ Tamag, 


TavTa. 






Masc. 


Fern. Neut. 






Dual, N. A. 


TOVTW, 


TaVTa, TOVTh), 






G.D. 


TOVTOIV, 


TaVTULV, TOVTOIV. 





Ohs. 1. \?>t\iQ articulus i^rcep. \v^B the only 2^^'^^^'^^^^ demonstrative in the oldest 
language, (§ 126.) but gradually lost this meaning, it is obvious that both these 
forms only give to it more intensity, and that ovtoq in particular is in some degree 
the mperl. of 6. — See the still greater intensity given to both by annexing l, § 80. 

Ohs. 2. The dialects offer no peculiarity but the Ionic £ in rovrkov, ravrsfjg, &e. 
and the very anomalous Epic form 

of the dat. ToXadeai, rola^ecro't, for ToTade. 

Ohs. 3. The nom. ovtoq, avrr), is likewise used as a kind of vocative or exclama- 
tion iu the sense of the Latin heus ! ho ! you yonder I harh I 

§77. 

1 . The simple Pronoun Interrogative., 

TLQ, neut. Ti, gen. tlvoq ; ivho or which ? what ? quis, quce, 
quid ? 
always has the accent on the l, {tIveq, dat. pi. tlgi, &c.) and 
distinguishes itself by that circumstance, and by its nomin. and 
accus. sing, constantly having the acute accent, (see § 13.) 
from the simple pronoun indefinite, 

T\g, neut. t\, gen. tlvoq, any one, some one, something, aliquis, 
aliqua, aliquid, 
which besides is mostly enclitic, and written without an accent. 
They are both regularly declined after the third decl., and the 
L is every where short. 

Ohs. 1. In those rare instances in which tiq or rl gets the acute accent, because 
it is followed by other enclitics, the connexion or the accent of the preceding word 
must distinguish it from the pronoun interrogatite : as, avrip tiq ttote. 

Ohs. 2. Poets, and also the Attic comic writers, employ instead of the interroga- 
tive ri the emphatic tlI], ichat then, tchy then, why so ? 

2. The following forms are often used instead of the gen. and 
dat. of both pronouns : 



110 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Tov, Ti[>, (in the three genders^) orthotoned for rivog, rtvi, 
and encUtic for nvog, tiv\, as no TEKfiaipei rovro ; how 
dost thou prove that ? — ywaiKog tov, of a certain 
woman, — ')^pri(jOaL tm, to use something : 

and for the neut.pl. of the pronoun indefinite arra, Ion. 
a(T(7a, for Tiva, but always orthotoned, as, 
^eiva arra, for ^eiva riva, Od. r. 218, ottttoT aaaa. 

3. The compound pronoun relative ogtiq, {who, which,) an 
intensive of og, has a double decl. 

Norn. b(7Tig, ring, o,rL (see § 15, 2). 

Gen. ovTLvog, rianvog, dat. l^tlvi, yrivL, &c. 

Ace. ovTiva, y'lvriva, 6,ti, 
Plur. Nom. olrLveg, alrLveg, ariva, 

Gen. ojvTivijJv, Dat. oiaTLai, alcrrKn, 
Ace. ovGTLvag, a(TTivag, ariva. 
It also admits one of those collateral forms of ng, which we 
have just mentioned (2) : 

orow, oTh) — for ovrivog, lorivi (but not for the fem.), 
arra, Ion. aa(Ta — for ariva. 

Ohs. 3. The collateral form tov, ri^, must not be confounded with the article, 
from which it is totally different, as is shown by the triple gender and the dialects. 
The TOV of the article is resolved by the Epics into toXo, but the tov for t'ivoq, tivoq, 
into t'so, whence Ion. and Dor. rcu — dat. Ion. TS(f. — The same in the compound 
pronoun relative, or£o, otteo, oTiv, oncf). 

Obs. 4. The lonians have this collateral form also in the gen. and dat. plural, 
t'eojv, tsokti, for tivmv, Tialv, and the Attics even have, though rarely, in the com- 
pound pronoMW re^a^itJe, orwj/, oTOKTi, Xen. Aiiab. 7,6,24. (Econ.3,2. (see Schn.) 
Soph. (Ed. T. 414. Aristoph. Eq. 758. lonice otsojv, otsoktiv, and also in the fein. 
oTtyaiv. 

Obs. 5, Epics also have the compound pronoun relative with the first syllable 
unchanged in all the cases — '6Tig,'6Tiva, (for ovTiva and uTiva,) oTivag. When- 
ever they use the double t, they write the neuter thus : 6,tti. 
(See § 80, about bariaovv, oTijiovv, &c.) 

4. T\g, compounded with ou and fxri, gives the negative 
pronouns ovng, firjTig, i, no one, none, which are declined like rig 
(§ 78, 1). 

§ 78. — Pronouns and Correlative * Adjectives. 

1. Correlativa are words, several of which stand in such a 
connexion with each other, that one contains a certain question, 

* Pronouns cannot be so precisely defined in theory, as not to admit many words 
which may also be considered as adjectives. 



PRONOUNS. Ill 

and the corresponding ones express the simplest relations, 
which answer that question. The general correlatives have 
been stated above^ viz. : 

the pronoun interrogative rig^ ivho ? 
the demonstrative 6, oSs, ovrog, this : 
the indefinite tIq, any one, some one : 
th.e pronoun relative oc? compound octtiq, which : 
the negative ovtlq^ fxriTiQ, (§ 77, 4.) or ov^hq, nn^ug, (§ 70, 1 .) 
no one, none, each, of course, with its /em. and neut, 

2. When these expressions are expressly confined to two 
objects, or two parts, 

the interrogative is Trorcpoc, a., ov, ivhich of the two ? 

the demonstrative the same with the above. 

the indefinite 6 hepog, (77 eripa, &c.) 07ie of the two. 

the relative b-n-orepoQ, ivhich of the two. 

the negative ov^ktpog, iuiY]diTEpog, neither, 

Obs. 1 . "O eVfpoe is exactly the Latin alter ; and when one of two is ah'eady named, 
6 sVfpo^ becomes definite, and must be translated the other (4). See about the crasis 
uTspoc, Oarspov, &c. § 29. Obs. 5. 

3. The answer to rig and Tror^pog may also be each. This 
has in Greek the form of a compar. and sitperl. 

EKarepog, a, ov, each of the two, 

EKaGTog, rj, ov, each or every one (of several). 

4. Other general answers may be given to Tig, as 

aXXog, another (§ 74, 1) 

irag, iravTEg, all (§ 62, 4). 
The question iroTepog may be answered by 

6 ETEpog, in the sense oi the other (see Obs. 1). 

afi^OTEpog, a, ov, ajKliorEpoi, ai, a, both, 
and in some connexions, instead of aficporspog, simply the dual. 
N. A. afKpbj, G. D. afKpolv with the accent removed, which is 
used for the three genders. 

Obs. 2. In Poets a/Lt^w is sometimes indeclmable, and used for the gen. and dot. 
See about aXXog and 'irepog, § 127, 5. 

§79. 

1. Independently of these general correlatives, there are also 
some definite or particularising ones, referring to the properties 
and relative circumstances of the object, {of what nature ? in 



112 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

lohat place ?) These are formed in Greek after a very distinct 
analogy ; but as they are partly adjectives and partly adverbs, 
we shall treat of the latter separately, § 116. 

3. Each series of C07Telatwes has a common root and inflec- 
tion^ but distinguishes itself by the initial letter. The inter- 
rogative begins with a ir, for instance, iroaog, quantus ? hoiu 
great ? how much ? The same form, but usually with a change 
in the accent, serves for the indefinite, Troo-og, aliquantus, of a 
certain size or number. When there is a r instead of the 
initial tt, it is the deinonstrative, roaog, tantus, so great, so much ; 
but if the initial consonant is dropped, and the word begins 
with the spiritus asper, it is the relative, oaog, quantus, as great 
as, as much as. There is in common language no negative to 
answer to these questions. 

3. Beside the simple relative, there is also a compound one, 
which in some circumstances is generally preferred. It answers 
to the correlative octtlq, otov, and is formed by prefixing an o to 
the interrogative, 

TTOdog, relative oiog and oTroaog {poet. binrocTog). 

4. The simple pronoun demonstrative (roo-oc) is mostly used 
as a perfect demonstrative by poets only ; but in prose some^ 
times merely in the restricted instances, when there is no par- 
ticular stress on the relations of quantity, (or quality, in roToc?) 
ex. gr. oaci) (deXriwv ectti, Toaio juloXXov (^tvXaTrzTai, (Xen. Cyrop. 
1, 6, 26.) TOfTog KoX Toaog. Hence we generally find a more 
emphatic form used, and just as the article 6 (the old and 
weaker demonstrative) is strengthened either by the enclitic ^e, 
{ode,) or by being changed into ovrog, the same is done here ; 
-og in the second instance is changed into -ovrog, as- — 

rocroc — roaoade or Toaovrog. 
The former is declined in the middle of the word — 
TOdotTCE, T0(7r}de, TOdovde, gen. rocrovdE, &c. 
(see about the accent, § 14. Obs. 3.) The latter conforms en- 
tirely to ovTog respecting the diphthongs ov and av, but has in 
the neuter both ov and o, thus — 

TO(TOVTog, TOfravrrj, roaovTOv and toctovto, 

gen. roaovrov, roaavrrig. Sec. 

pi. TOGOVTOi, ToaavTat, rocravTa, &c. 

gen. togovtlov, tocjovtwv, togovtojv, &c. 

5. The following are the three completest series of this kind: — 





PRONOUNS. 


116 


Interrog, 


Indef 


Demonstr. 


Rel. 


TTOGOQ ; 




TOCTOg, 


070 g, ^ 


how great ? how much ? 


TTOGOg, 


Toaodds, 


oTtoaog, 


quantus ? 




rocrovTog, 




TTOLog ; 




Toiog, 


OLog, 


of what kind ? 


TTOLOg, 


tolocjSb, 


oTTolog, 


of what nature ? 




roLOVTog, 




qualis ? 








irrikiKOQ ; 


TTTjXlKOg, 


Tr}XtKog, 


TjXiicog^ 


how old? 




rr]\nc6(Tde, 


oTTiiKUog 


hoio great ? 




rr}\iKOVTog, 




See about the Ionic forms Koaoq, Kolog, oKoaog, &c. § 


16. Obs. 1. c. 



Ohs. 1. There are also a few incomplete correlatives, yvhich,like 7r6Tepoc,67r6Tepog 
in the preceding Section, have only the compound relative beside the interrogative *,' 
of this kind are especially TToSaTTog, oTTodaTrbg, (icJiere born, of lohat country, of what 
place,) the derivatives of Tvocrog, like ttooto^, TrocrTalog, TroaaTrXdcnog, — ottootoc:, 
&c. : and the demonstrative rvvvog, rvvvovrog {tiny, so very small, tantilliis,) is also 
a correlative. 

Obs. 2. This class of words derive their correlative power from the initial letters 
TT, T, &c., hut some of them denote also other relations, when compounded, espe- 
cially with the general correlatives, srepog, dWog, Trdg (§ 78) ; for instance, the 
interrogative irolog is also answered by tTspoTog, dWolog, of another hind, of a 
different nature, -rravTolog, of all sorts, of every kind. It is the same with 7ro8a7r6g, 
wliich gives dXXodaTrbg, TravrodaTrbg, yfisSaTrbg, {belonging to our country, our 
countryman,) and the like. 

Obs. 3. To consider Toaovrog, &c. as a compound of ovTog is improper. The 
final syllable ovrog here, and in the word ovrog by itself, is nothing but the 
strengthening of the termination og in the way of a superlative, as will be clearly 
shown below, in treating of the particles, IvravOa, IvrevOev, § 116. 



§ 80. — Appendages, 

1. The compound and strengthened pronouns relative, like 
oGTig, oTovj oaTTEp, oTToaocj &c., annex to all their cases the little 
word ovv, which retains the accent, and in this composition 
exactly answers to the Latin cunque, denoting the completeness 
of the relation ; as oarig, who, ogtktovv, quicunque, ivhosoever, 
rjTKJovv, oTiovvy oTtoovvy ace. ovTivaovv or bvTivovv, &c. — 
odTTEpovv, biroaoaovv, ottyiXikovovv, &c. 

Obs. 1. The form drjTroTs imparts still greater force to this signification ; as oo-rttr- 
tq-KOTk k(jTiv, ichosoever it may 6e, oaovdrjTroTs, but it is frequently written separate. 

2. In the language of familiar intercourse, the Attics, to 
give greater intensity to the pronoun demonstrative^ annex to 
all its forms the 

t demonstr atlvum, 

1 



114 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Avhicli likewise draws the accent on itself, is always long, and 

absorbs all short final vowels ; for instance, 

ovToc — ouroori, this here, (Latin hicce, French cehi-ci,) avrrfi, 

(from avTrj,) rouri, (from tovto,) eKeivom, [celui-la,) Ikuvovl, 

&c. TO(jovTov\, TOCTovSi, (viz. SO much, so great as you see 

there,) &c. 

See about long vowels and diphthongs being made short 
before this \, § 7. Obs, 16. 

Ohs. 2. Whenever the encHtic ye is annexed to the pronouns demonstrative, the I 
takes the place of the e, as tovto yf, rouroyi. 

Obs. 3. If there be an <r before this i, it is sometimes found with the moveable v, 
as ovToalvy tovtovctiv. (The case is the same with the adverb ovtojcIv from ovtodq.) 

§Sl.— Of the Verb. 

1. The essential forms of the Greek verb, as moods, tenses, 
&c., may be supposed to be known from other languages ; but 
the Greek is more copious than the Latin, English, or German 
verb, especially with regard to having a middle voice distinct 
from the active and passive voice, the optative as a particular 
mood distinct from the conjunctive, the aorist as a particular 
tense, the dual as a particular number, and a greater variety 
of moods and participles for the several tenses. It must not be 
imagined, however, that every form is perfect and in constant 
use in every verb, though Greek grammars necessarily state all 
the forms complete in one verb. 

2. It also happens, much more frequently in the Greek than 
in other languages, that a form, which according to a strong 
analogy should be confined to one signification, has the oppo- 
site ; for instance, the passive voice often has the signification 
of the active. Hence we must first be acquainted with the 
forms themselves, remembering at the same time what their 
principal destination is conformably to analogy. 

3. But these significations can be thoroughly developed in 
the Syntax only, and what is absolutely necessary for their 
comprehension may be supposed to be known from other lan- 
guages, as, for instance, the notions of the passive voice, the 
conjunctive and imperative of the present, &c. There are, 
however, a few previous remarks stated respecting the optative 
in § 88, 2, and respecting the middle voice in § 89. We now 
proceed to treat more particularly of the tenses of the Greek 
verb. 

4. The most satisfactory division of the tenses is according 



VERBS, 115 

to their reference to the present, past^ diad future. But the past 
tense, in common language, is susceptible of a greater variety 
than the other two. The tenses referring to time past are 
known by the general name of prcEterites ; there is, however, 
this essential difference, that, in one of their forms, the thought 
is confined to the present time, and facts or circumstances are 
mentioned simply as having occurred ; this is the perfect : in 
the other forms the thought is transferred to the past, and 
facts and circumstances are narrated as they occurred at that 
particular time \ This narrative species of the prceterite intro- 
duces new subdivisions, and gives, in Latin, German, and 
English, the imperfect and the plusquamperfectum, and in Greek 
an additional tense, the aorist, of which the import is stated in 
the Syntax, § 137. 

5. None of the known languages distinguish the two spe- 
cies of preterites by forms so strongly marked as the Greek. 
The' perfect adheres in the main to the analogy of the present 
and of the future, whilst the narrative species of the prceterite 
has its own distinct analogy, on which the Greek grammar 
builds a second division of the tenses, and calls 

Principal Tenses 
the present, perfect, and future, and 

Historical Tenses 
the imperfect^ plusquamperfectum, and aorist, 

6. There is a double distinction in the form. 1.) The tenses 
of the Greek verb are distinguished one from the other by 
their terminations; and 2.) the prceterites by an additional 
prefix, called the augment. The historical tenses again distin- 
guish themselves from the other tenses, and consequently also 
from the perfect, by a peculiar augment, and particular inflec- 
tions of the terminations of their numbers and persons ^. We 
proceed to the augment, and shall treat of the inflections and 
conjugation in § 87. 

^ Even in a lively narrative this transfer of the thought to the particular time 
past frequently betrays the nari\ator into the use of the present tense. 

^ That our classification of the Greek tenses by augments and terminations is, as 
it were, firmly rooted in the language, and, of course, essentially important, is very 
obvious. A present tense, prceterite, and (perhaps periphi'astic)/wiMre, are the three 
most indispensable tenses with which the scanty old language may be supposed to 
have been satisfied. They, therefore, are justly cMed jJrincipal tenses. This prce- 
terite unquestionably served for the purposes of nai-ration ; it is, indeed, to the need 
of narrating or relating (the oldest want of men) that we trace the origin of all 
language ; yet this prceterite was at the same time a mere perfect, just as we hear 
even now in several parts of Germany the uneducated class deliver their narratives 

I 2 



116 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§ 82. — Of the Augment, 

1. The augment is an alteration in the beginning of the 
word^ which in most instances consists of a real addition, and, 
when this is not the case, is yet derived from an original 
addition. 

2. The augment is different according as the Greek verb 
begins with a consonant or a vowel. When the verb begins with 
a consonant, the augment makes a syllable of itself, and is then 
called the syllabic augment. But when the verb begins with a 
vowel, this vowel, when short, generally becomes long. This 
is called the augmentum temporale, {av^riaLq ^qovlky],) the word 
X^ovoQ referring likewise to the quantfty of syllables. 

3. The augment is, according to the preceding §, the charac- 
teristic sign of past tenses, viz. of the imperf., perfect, plus- 
quamp.y and aorist. But the perf belongs likewise to the 
principal tenses ; its augment therefore differs from that of the 
historical tenses, as will be seen in the syllabic augment, which 
is the foundation of the temporal one \ 

The Syllabic Augment, 

4. The augment of the perfect, when the verb begins with a 
consonant, consists in prefixing the initial letter of the verb 
with the vowel e, as 

TVTTTM, perf, Te-TV(l)a : 
hence this augment is also called the reduplicative augment, or 
simply reduplication. If the verb begins with an aspirata, it 
follows, from § 18, that the corresponding tenuis is prefixed, 
for instance, 

(l)i\tu) — Tre-rpiXiqKa, Ovw — ri-QvKa, ^wpeo) — Ke-^wpriKa. 
The fut. 3, which comprises the meaning of the perfect, retains 
this augment, § 99. 

5. But the historical tenses merely prefix an I, which is 
called simply augmentum; for instance, 

TVTTTU), imperf, 'i-rvirrov, aor, i-Tvipa, 
and the plusquamperfectum, which adds the historical meaning 

exclusively in the heavy German ijerfect. It was only in proportion as the lan- 
guage was cultivated, that it gradually separated the historical tenses, with their 
modifications, from the prceterite, and left the old prceterite to keep its station, as a 
pure 2^^1'fict, among the principal tenses. To observe the analogy, which in the 
Greek so clearly distinguishes the principal and historical tenses, is highly inter- 
esting. The leai-ner must, therefore, direct his particular attention to the syllabic 
augment, and the terminations of the tenses particularised in § 87, 3. 

1 Wo combine the theory of the reduj)lication of the perfect with that of the 
simple augment, of which the former is the foundation, because this combination 
best shows wherein the two augments agree, and essentially differ. 



VERBS. 117 

to the signification of the perfect, puts this s before the redu^ 
plication of the perfect ; as 

TVTTTb), perf ri-Tvc^ta, plusq. l-reTvcpeiv. 
The principal tenses (with respect to the augment) are there- 
fore distinguished from the historical; the former taking either 
no augment {pres. and fut.) or the reduplication [perf) ; the 
latter taking either the simple augment, or the reduplication 
and jthe augment {plusquamp,), 

6. There are augments in the active, passive, and middle 
voice ; the simple augment is only in the indicative, the redu- 
plication in all moods and pariiciples. As the imperf and 
plusquamp. do not form any moods, the above-mentioned rule 
may be more readily expressed in the following way : 

The reduplication of the perfect is retained in all moods 
and participles ; but the augment of the aorist takes 
place only in the indicative. 

Thus of TVTTTd), 

the PERF. is rirvcpa, inf. TiTV(^ivai, part, t^tv^mq, 

f 1. ETVipa — Tv-^ai — TvxLag, 
AOR. So" - '^ 

(^ 4'. erVTTOV rVTTUV — TVTrtOV, 

and the fut. 3. is like the perfect. (See 4. Obs.) 

Obs. The rule may be expressed still more accurately. Any reduplication, or 
whatever supplies its place, continues through all moods, (hence the irregular 
reduplication of the hot: XsXaOov, part. \eXa9(hv, and the like, § 83. 06s. 7-) but 
any simple augment takes place merely in the indicative (hence the irregular ao7\ 
ijyayov drops merely the augmentum temporale in the injin., &c., ayayttv, § 85. 
06s. 2). See about any founded or unfounded exceptions, the Anom. dyvvm and 

tLTTtiv. 

§83. 

1. The preceding Section staj^ed the syllabic augment in its 
proper capacity and regularity; the present will show its 
deviations and peculiarities. 

2. Whenever a verb begins with an g, this p is doubled after 
the £j as — 

paTTTit), imperf. 'ippairrov, 
(See § 21, 2, and the exceptions ibidem, Obs. 2.) and the perfect 
and plusquamp. have only the same augment without the redu- 
plication : 

Perf ippa(^a, plusquamp. IppcKpsiv. 

3. When a verb begins with a double letter, it takes merely 
the £ instead of the reduplication, which e then remains 
unchanged in the plusquamp., ex.gr. •\\jQXK(M,perf. lt\paXKa, plusq. 
e\paXKeiv : Zwiw, ^io), perf. pass. f^?7rrjjuat, e^eafjiai. And this 



]18 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

is done in most instances where the verb begins with two 

consonants^ ex. gr, 

(pdufHi), perf. e(()9opa, plusq. I(l)d6psiv, 
airdpb), perf. pass. sGirapfxai, plusq, laTTapjiirjv, 
£KTi<riuaL of KTiZiO} cTTTuyjuat of TTTVaaO), 

Obs. 1. From this last rule are excepted, and consequently subject to the prin- 
cipal rule, 

a.) Two consonants, of which the first is a mute, the other a liquid, {muta cum 
liquida,) for instance, ypdcpoj ys-ypa^a, ick-KXifJiai, 7rs-7rviVKa, TS-BXaKa, 
&c. But yv takes merely the c, and yX, (3\, are fluctuating ; ex. gr. 
yvdjpi^u) — kyvMpi(T[A.ai, KaT-eyX(i)TTi<7fievog, Si-syXvTrrai and dia-ysyXvTr- 
Tai, jSXdTTTU) j3sj5Xafx,ixai, ^Xaardvia kfSXdaTrjKa ^. 
h.) The perfects [isixvTjfxai and KSKTTjfiai of juvqw and KTdofxai. The lonians, 
however, (and even the Attics sometimes, ex. gr. Plato, Meno. 39.) have 
eKTTjixai. All other verbs beginning with jxv and kt take simply the f, 
ex. gr. sixvijixovevica, iKVtdTKJuai, sKroya. 
c.) The perfects Tr'tTVTajxai, TrtTTTrjica, TchiTTiOKa, TreTrrrjojg, (see the Anom. 
'JTSTavwixi, TTSTOfxai, TTiTTTOJ, TTTrjaaoj,) all of which rather are syncopated 
verbs of the root IIETQ. Any perfect, immediately and regularly derived 
from 7rr, has merely e, as the usual perfect of Trrrjaau} iTCTr]x<^> and 
iTTToijfxai, 'iitTianai. 
Obs. 2. The same kind of augment, peculiar to verbs beginning with p, may have 
taken place in the old language with other semivowels ; hence the two perfects 
ffifxopa and facvfxai, see the Anom. fisipofiai and asvoj. — The Epics double all 
liquids for the sake of the metre, but only in the hnperf. and aor. EXXa[3ev, efxfJiaOe. 
— See the Anom. dsiaai about eddeiae. 

Obs. 3. A few verbs of the common language, beginning with liquids, have, 
instead of the reduplication, the syllable ei or ti, ex. gr. dXtjipa. See the Anom. 
Xajx^dvit), Xayxdv(x), Xkyo), fjceipofxai, and PEQ under utthv. 

Obs. 4. Homer's ptpvitiankva is the only instance of a reduplication before p. 
Obs. 5. In the three verbs jSovXofiai, {to be willing,) Svvafiai, {to be able,) and 
/usXXw, {to be about to do, intend to do,) the Attics commonly strengthen the syllabic 
augment by the addition of the temporal one ; ex. gr. ridvvdfirjv instead of kdvvdfxrjv, 
the same in ditoXavco, see § 86. 06s. 2. — See about the syllabic augment before a 
vowel, § 84. Obs. 5, &c. 

Obs. 6. Non- Attic poets often omit the augment in the historical tenses ; ex. gr. 
pdXe for 'i^aXe, (Sfj for 'ij3t), ysvovro for kytvovro, &c.2 Compare about the accent, 
Obs. \, 2, to § 103. — This omission in the plusquamp. is also very common in prose : 
Ttrvipeiaav, tstvttto, for tTtTv^iiaav, krhrvTrTo, dediu (Plato, Phcedr. 251. a.) for 
edsdiei, and the like. But the omission of the real reduplication is very rare and 
doubtful. See about tdiKro and the like, § 110, 8, and about the Epic redupl. dei, 
instead of ds, the Anom. ducxai and dsiKvvfii. 

Obs. 7. The aor. 2. (of the actice and middle voice) has also frequently the 
redupl. in Epic poets, and this redupl. continues through all the moods, (see § 82, 6, 
with the Note,) ex. gr. TrsTrXrjyov, XtXaOijJV, TreTnOelv, XfXa/3icr0ai, &c. In some 

^ Observe that yv, yX, fSX, belong to those instances of muta cum liquida which 
are also excepted from the rule of the others in prosody (see § 7» 10). The other 
exceptions stated in that Section do not occur in a way which applies hex'e ; for 
Sid/xiTixai is a syncope. See the Anom, dsfioj. 

^ With Attics for the sake of the metre but seldom ; see Herm. on Eurip. Hec. 
p. xxxii. In prose never, not even in Ionic prose. The sole exception is XP^^- 
See the Anom. xp^'^y XPV- 



VERBS. 119 

few verbs the simple augment is added in the indie. ^pdZu) i-iritppadov (see the 
Anom. and compare icIXo/iat and $'ENQ). — T\\q present and the fut. active have this 
redupl. only in some mostly poetical forms derived from reduplicated tenses ; see 
§111. 

§ 84. — The Temfporal Augment, 

1. When the verb begins with a vowel^ whether it has the 
sp. asper or lenis, the augment coalesces with the initial vowel 
into a long vowel; and this kind o^ augment, called the temporal 
augment, (see § 82^ 1.) continues unchanged ixiQ\\.the. prceterites, 
A or £ generally becomes r?, and o — w, ex. gr, 

avvis), imperf. I'jvvov^ perf, yjvvKa, plusq. tivvkhv, 
apiuLo^df, imperf. i]piuLoZov, perf. r\piioKa, plusq, rjpiLioKEiv, 
eXTTiZdJ} imperf. i^XinZov, perf. liKiriKa, plusq. riXTriKuv, 
ojuiXiu), imperf wfiiXzov, perf wjiikriKa, plusq. (l>jUL\r]icHv, 

2. The following verbs^ e^^w, I have, laoj, I let, fX/cw, / drag, 
(see the Anom.) 'ipirto and ^pirvZu), I creep, eOi^w, I accustom, 
i\ia(T(jj, I ivind, ^(TTiacj, I give a feast, fVo) (see the Anom.) and 
EiroiuLai, I follow, epyaZofxai, I work, do not change the e into rj, 
but into u, for instance, imperf elxov, perf upyaaiiai, &c. (See 
Obs. 4.) 

Obs. 1. See also dXov, kXilv, in the Anom. aXgkoi, tlujOa in the Anom. iOu), and 
the verbs belonging to the root "EQ, § 108. ^ 

3. The vowels i and v can only be augmeiited when they 
are short, and they then become long through the augment : 
ex.gr. U^T&vd), (Eurip. Med. 971.) aor. iKirevaa (338); and 
even when the syllable is already long by position, the aug- 
ment must be rendered sensible in pronunciation, ex. gr, latino 
'ia)(yov, vfivib) vfxvovv. 

4. Of the vowels long in themselves, a (according to Text 1.) 
commonly becomes rj ; the others -q, w, 7, v, are not susceptible 
of the augment, ex. gr. -qTTaoum, 

imperf riTTu)iur}v, perf rjrrrjjuai, plusq. 7]TT{]fxi]v, 
except by the removal of the accent. See Obs. 4. 

5. A diphthong may be augmented when its first vowel can 
be changed in the way mentioned above ; and if the second 
vowel be an l, it is subscribed thus : 

avXkio — y]v\ovv, ^v^ofxai — r]v\6iir\v, 

alrid) — yrovv, qdio — y^dov, 

oIkeix) — oJkovv, 

^ The following are improperly considered as belonging hither, viz. ettw and 
ipeoj. See the Anom. t'nreXv — s^w about elaa. See § 108,2. — epvu) and sjowrdw 
about ei'puaa, tipwrcov, which forms belong, however, to the Ionic eipvw, eipojrdu). 



120 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

But many verbs neglect this augment, [Ohs. 2.) and it never 
takes place with ou and £i : oura^w — ovTaX^ov, ukcj — eiKOv, a$a ; 
with the solitary exception of hkciZoj, which^ however, is only 
augmented by the Attics, and that but rarely, uizaaa, EiKacrfjiai, 
Att. r/'/cao-a, ijKaGfiaL. In the verbs beginning with £i> the usage 
is fluctuating; 7jvxofjir]v and £u;;^ojur]v, evpiOriv, very seldom 

Obs. 2. Those vei-bs in which the augment would produce a cacophony or indis- 
tinctness, remain in general unchanged, especially a few beginning with a, av, oi, 
followed by another vowel, dtu), dr][ii, d?^^j^o/iai, avaivio, oiaKiZco, oiow, and 
some others ; only that the short a, for instance in diw, is lengthened : hnperf. 
d'iov, (long a,) avaivsro, oiccKiK^v, &c. But dsido) makes ^eidov according to the 
general rule. Neither do some other verbs beginning with oi take the augment, 

Olvi^U), OlKOVpkd), olCTpku). 

Obs. 3. But the lonians and non- Attic poets frequently neglect this augment as 
well as the syllabic one in any verb, ex. gr. dfj.ti(3£To for yjjxeifStTO, lujv for t'lMv, (of 
saw,) &c. even in \he perf. and plusq. pass., ex. gr. aix[iai, o'lKrjixaL, (of utttoj, oikeio,) 
Herod. The Dorians, instead of changing those beginning with a into 77, merely 
alter the quantity, a. 

06s. 4. The temporal augment arose unquestionably from the contraction of the 
syllabic augment a with the vowel of the verb, ex. gr. dyw, e-ayov ijyov : the con- 
traction of ee into t], and eo into w, is, how'ever, a deviation from the general custom 
(§ 28, 3. b) ; but that of ta into rj, and es into £i, (i'xw, i-exov tlxov,) agrees 
exactly with it. — Hence the accent of some compound verbs is accounted for. As 
the accent (according to Obs. I. 1. to § 103.) always rests, as far as possible, on the 
antepenultima, dvrJTTTov of dvaTTToj, for instance, has the circumflex on the 
penultima, because of the contraction. And thus the augment sometimes is to be 
known only by the accent, ex. gr. Trpoor/jfcw, (from iy/cw,) imperf. 7rpo(Tr]KOV : uTreipys 
is the imperatite of aTTf/pyw, and dirtipyi the third person of the imperf. 

Obs. 5. But the syllabic augment has actually been retained in some instances 
befoi'e a vowel. Beside several Epic forms, the following three verbs of the com- 
mon language, which by the rule are not susceptible of the temporal augment, have 
the syllabic one : 

ujO'sii), ujvBOfxai, ovp'sio, 
imperf. ImBovv, swvovfirjv, lovpovv. 
The case is the same with the verb ATQ, (see Anom. dyvvjXL,) I break, aor. ea^a, 
&c., to distinguish it from dyw, / lead. 

Obs. 6. The temporal augment arose from the f eA^en in the perfect. For as the 
usual redupl. (§ 82.) consisted in the repetition of the first consonant with an f, 
this 6 alone could be prefixed when the verb began with a vowel, and it formed 
the temporal augment along with this vowel. The s is still found unchanged in the 
first-mentioned verbs, (as 'iaya, tioa^ai, Idjvrjiiai, lovpijKa,) and besides in 

ioiKa, 'ioXTTa, 'iopya, 
from HKb), ikiruj, epyu). The in these perfects comes from the change of the vowel 
in the root, (of which below,) and e is redupl.: tpyw 'i-opya, like ^epKw dsdopKa. 

Obs. 7. This augment retains the sp. asper of the verbs, which have it, ex. gr. 
kdXwv, kdXwKO, from 'AAOQ. See Anom. dXioKOfxai, also dv^dvu), evvvfii. 

Obs. 8. Just as we have seen above (§ 83. Obs. 5.) the syllabic augment increased 
by the temporal one, the latter is commonly increased in the verb bpdio, {I see,) by 
the syllabic one, and retains the spintus : imperf. eibptov. See about the perfect 



VERBS. 121 

edipaKa, bpaoj, and also olyoj, dvoiyu), among the Anomalous Verhs. The Epic poets 
do this likewise with other verbs, ex. gr. ei^voxoei of oivo')(^o£a>, efjvdavs of avSdvoj. 

Obs. 9. When a verb begins with eo, it is the second vowel which takes the aug- 
ment. This occurs in the verb eoprd^w, eMpra^ov, and the perfects of Ohs. 6. in the 
jjlusq. etjJKeiv, eivXTreiv, Iwpysiv. 

§ 85.— Attic Reduplication, 

1. There is no redupl. in verbs beginning with a vowel^ as we 
have seen above (compare § 84. Obs. 6). But several of them^ 
all radical verbs, have in the perfect a peculiar redupl. called 
the Attic redupl., which, however, is not exclusively peculiar to 
the Attics; most verbs, which have it, disdaining the above 
simpler form. It consists in the repetition of the first two 
letters of the verb, with the vowel unchanged, before the usual 
temporal augment in the perfect ; for instance, 

aydpu), {I'lyepKa,) ay-i]y£pKa, ayr}yEpf.iai, 
Ifxku), [rip^Ka,) Ifi-rip^Ka, 
opvTTd), (wpuxo,) op-wpvxd, oowpvypai, 
o^w, (wSa,) 6d-(i)da. 

2. This form is fond of a short vowel in the third syllable, 
and on that account makes long vowels short, as, for instance, 
in aXeicpd), perf. aXrjXKpa, a\i]\ippaL, clkovio, perf. a/c/^/coa. 

Obs. 1. This shortening of the vowel enabled Homer to make IprjpkdaTai even of 
speidoj, which commonly gives tpfjpsKyfiai : see Obs. IV. to § 103. — Even the temporal 
augment of the second syllable is sometimes neglected by the Epic poets for the sake 
of the metre, ex. gr. tpspiTTTO, dpdpvla, of ip£i7r(x),''AVQ. — See about other peculiarities 
of this redupl. the Anom. aipkio, kyiipo), ^/ivw, i%w, o'ixo}xai. 

3. The plusquamp. sometimes adds a new temporal augment, 
most commonly in aKrjKoa, riKr^Koeiv : but it is omitted in the 
generality of instances (compare § 83. Obs. 6). 

Obs. 2. The aor. 2. of some verbs among those which belong to this §, (as § 83. 
Obs. 7.) has in the poets a redupl. corresponding to that of the perfect, yet so as to 
give precedence to the temporal augment ; ex.gr. 

APQ, Pf. dpapa, {Ion. apripa,) aor. ijpapov. 
The case is the same with ijKaxov, wpoptv, and some other forms (see the Note 
below). The verb dyoj (see Anom.) has this aor. iiyayov in the common language. 
This redupl. continues also in the other moods, which only reject the temporal axig- 
ment : dpdpy, ukux^^v, dyaywv (see § 82. Obs.).^ 

^ Grammarians formerly used to explain the Epic forms i'jpapev, wpcps, as pierfects 
made by transposition of dprjpa, opcupa : but ripdpa or other p)erfects of this kind are 
nowhere to be met with in the genuine old Poets. These third jyersons have every- 
where the signification of the aor., and there are in Homer and other Poets other 
aorists as 3 pK dpapov for iipapov, part, dpapdjv. The other similar aorists do also 
agree with them, as dyaytiv, a/ca%fTv, drrax^h', aTzacptlv, dXaXKtlv, and tveyiceXv, (for 
which see the Anom.) and also those beginning with a consonant, as TrtiriQilVj 
XtkaQtlv, &c. § 83. Obs. 7. 



122 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 3. A very extraordinary redupl. of the aor. at the end of the word is found 
in the Epic poets in 

ipvKOj, aor. rfpvKaKov, epvKUKseiv, (for — eli>,) 
and also in svitttco, r'jv'nraTrs. See the Anom. 

§ 86. — Of the Augment in compound Verbs » 

1. With regard to compound verbs, the principal rules are 
the following : when the verb is compounded with a prep., the 
prep, stands before the augment in the augmented tenses. 

It is therefore advisable, first to place the augment before 
the simple verb, and then to prefix the preposition. In the case 
of two vowels coming together, the vowel of the preposition 
(with the exception of tte^i and Trpo) undergoes an elision. 
Several other changes will be best seen in the examples : 
Trpoacfyipii) — TTjOocr-l^ejOov ; (TvWijMy avv-e\eyov ; 
cnro^vtjj — air-idv(7a, uTro-di^VKa, air-tda^vKEiv ; 
GVppaTTTW, Gvv-EppaTTTOv ', awoXXaTTtJ, air-rjWaTTOV ; 
irepijdaXXu), Trepi-bjdaXXov. 
In the moods of the aorist, the preposition resumes of course 
its original form, after having cast off the augment, ea?, gr, 
(TvXXeytj, aor, avviXe^a, conj, cruXXcSo;, infi avXXi^ai^ 
cnrodvu), — cnriSvaraj — aTTO^vau), — airo^vcrai. 

2. Verbs not compounded with prepositions take the aug- 
ment in the beginning, e^. gr, 

fxeXoTTOilii), IfieXoTToiovv, jUfjueXoTTOtTj/ca, 

TrXrjfifxeXect), 7rETrXr]fijuiXr}Ka, 

cif^QOviii), r]<[)p6vovv, oiKoSojuau, (jJicooOjUrjo'a. 
But verbs compounded with ev and the inseparable particle 
^v(T- take the temporal augment in the middle, as 

evepysTtw, Evi^pyirovv ', SuaajOEOTEW, cv(Tr}pic>Tovv ; 
but when an immutable vowel or consonant comes after those 
particles, the augment is in the beginning, as 

dv(TTVX^(j^j edvaTV)(^r}(Ta^ dsdvcTTVXriKa, 

evdoKifiiii), rivSoKifjLovv ; 
only those in ev are more generally (§ 84. Obs, 5.) without any 
augment, LvcppaiveTo, EVio\ovixy]v {tvivxtLaOai), 

Obs. 1 . The prep. 7rp6 frequently makes a crasis with the syllabic augment, Trpo- 
£7r6/i^a, TrpovTrefitpa: see § 120. Obs. 7. 

Obs. 2. Some compound verbs, which frequently occur in the language of familiar 
intercourse, and of which the primitives are to be found only in the dialects or poets, 
take the augment before the prep.; as kicdOevdov, UdOi^ov, i^cpiovv, (of d^irifii,) yet we 
find also ex.gr. KaOrjvdov in most authors, and avr oXai/w always gives aTTEXavov, and 



VERBS. 123 

sometipaes (according to § 83. Obs. 5.) with the double augment dw^XavoVf though 
there is no primitive verb to it. See also ajit7r6%a> in the Ano7n. £%w, and dfi^isvvv}iif 
§ 108, 3. About sfiTToX^v, see 06s. 3. 

Obs. 3. We must principally know, whether verbs are merely compounded with 
another icord, or derived from a word already compounded. With respect to this dis- 
tuiction a general rule may be observed, the principle of which cannot be shaken, 
although it is subject to many exceptions. Compound verbs of i\\e former kind have 
the augment always in the middle, and most verbs compounded with prepositions 
follow this rule ; for instance, avv-sXelia. Compound verbs of the latter kind have the 
augment in the beginning. To these belong, 1, all verbs not compounded with prep., 
(the adv. ev and dva- included,) though their second part should be perfectly similar 
to the primitive vei'b; for instance, neXoTroikco, which is not derived from /xsAof and 
TToiEu), but from 6 fieXoTroibg, and which has therefore tfieXoTToiovv. 2, many verbs too, 
though they be compounded with prep.; ex. gr. kpavriovfiai from the compound evav- 
TLog,'qvavTiovfir]v ; dvrijSoXsoj fvova dvri(3oX7],rjvTil36Xovv. Yet the usage of verbs, 
compounded with prep., having the augment in the middle, has occasioned a deviation 
from this principle, so that even in verbs derived from words compounded with 
prep, the augment is most usually after the prep. Homer tias dvrsjSoXrjcrs ^. The 
Attics generally have l^SKXrjaiaaav, iveKoJiJ.iaZov, TrpoefrjTevcra, avvrjpyovv, tTriTerr]- 
devKa, svexdpovv, and many more, though there are no simple primitives of all 
these verbs, (£K/cX?/(na'^w, tyfccti/iia'^fe), Trpotprjrevo), crvvspysoj, kTririjoevd), gyxftpew,) 
which are derived from £KKX?jo-ta, syfcw/xtoj/, Trpo^jjrJ^g, avvspybg, k7rir)]deg, and from 
kv and x^'^P' 'EjureXav (to trade, from lyiiTroX/), merchandise,) has indeed commonly 
rjixTT6Xr]Ga, — jjKa, but Lucian has sfjnrsTroXrjKa. — Even verbs compounded with sub- 
stantives have the redupl. in the middle, having no augment in the beginning, as 
iTTTTorsrpo^TjKa from tTTTrorjOo^gw. 

Obs. 4. The following verbs commonly take the augment in both places together : 
dvopOoot) rjvwpOovv, IvoxXsoj 'qvM-)(Xr](ja, dvexo/xai 'qvi.i\6nr]v, TrapoivtXv TTSTrap- 
f^v7]Ka. The anomaly is still greater in the verbs SiaKOvelv, diaiTq,v, Ci.dii]ic6vr]Ka, 
KarediyTTjcra, since they come from diaKovog, Siaira, in which the a does not belong 
to another word. Common practice has been betrayed into this irregularity by the 
mere similarity of the composition. 

CONJUGATION. 

§ 87. — Numbers and Persons, 
Connecting Vowel, 

1. All the terminations of the Greek verb in its tenses^ 
numbers, and persons, may be divided into two very distinct 
principal classes, one for the active, the other for the passive 
voice. Hence, though the import deviates in some tenses, one 
class is called the active conjugation, the other the passive, 

2. The principal tenses of either conform in some respects to 
a particular analogy, by which they are distinguished from the 
historical tenses. 

3. This appears more distinctly from the following table, 
which shows the terminations of the three persons and numbers 

^ See Buttm. Lexilogus, 63, 13. 



12i 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



in the different tenses and their conjugation. But it refers 
merely to the indicative : the way in which it is to be appUed 
to the conjunctive and optative will appear from the following §. 

Principal Tenses, 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Flur. 



Active, 

1 Person, 2 Person, 3 Person, 

g 

TOV TOV 

re aiv. ai 



Passive. 

1 Person, 2 Person, 3 Person, 



wanting 



fltV 



fiai 
fieOa 



((joa) 
(t9ov 



rat 
(tOov 
vrai. 



Historical Tenses. 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Plur. 



wanting 

jUSV 



c 

TOV 
T£ 



firiv 
-fiedov 



(t9ov 



TO 

adr}v 

VTO, 



Tr]v 
V or aav 

4. Here must be also noticed the doctrine of the so-called 
connecting vowel. Such is the term applied to that letter, by 
means of which the above-noted terminations are annexed to 
the root of the verb. For instance, in \v-o-iizv^ \v-zts, eXuo-- 
a-fxr^v, the letters o, e, a, are the connecting vowels; Xu is the 
root. 

5. The general rule is, that all the tenses of the verb, with 
the exception of the perf, and plusq. pass., and the irregular 
verbs in fii, annex those terminations noted above to the root, 
by means of the connecting vowel. But this vowel being 
variable, the manner in which the connecting vowel is used in 
the different tenses and moods is most easily learned from the 
paradigm. There are eight connecting vowels, viz., five simple 
vowels : a, £, tj (r?), o, w ; and three diphthongs : ai, et, and ol, 

Ohs. 1. Thus for instance the termination [xsv of the 1 pers. plur. act. is annexed 
to the root of the pres., fut., &c. by means of o (Xu-o-jufv, Xv(r-o-fxev) ; to the root of 
the aor. 1. and perf. by means of a {k\v(T-a-fx,tv,\e\vic-a-nev) ; to that of the plusq, by 
means of u (eXtXvK-ei- fiev); to that of the aor. I. pass, by means of tj (eXvO-rj-fiev); 
to that of the conj. by means of w {Xv-aj- fjitv) ; to that of the lores, opt. &c. by means 
of OL {Xv-oi-fxtv); to that of the opt, aor. by means of at {Xv<r-ai-ixev). From these 
examples it will be seen, that the terminations {fiev, rs, &c.) sufficiently indicate 
the persons, but that the connecting vowel alone is not sufficient to enable us to recog- 
nise the tenses and moods, since there are besides various changes taking place with 
the root of the verb, and which will be treated of in the following §§. 

06s. 2. The terminations of the first and third persons singular of the active are 
not given in this table, because in most instances they have no consonant, but only 
the connecting vowel, and generally alone, which connecting vowel ^ is, however, 

^ Though in this instance it has nothing more to connect, it is yet identical with 
it, and is consequently dropped in any formation which has no connecting vowel. 



Compare, for instance, ItiOt] with IriOr]- 
the root. 



and IriGe-fjLiv, Avhere t or rj belongs to 



VERBS. 125 

very different in different tenses. Compare, for instance, 1. Xv-w, 3. \v-ei, with 
Xvo-fxtv or e\va-a, tXv<J-£ with Ikva-a-ixtv. But in most historical tenses the first 
person has a steady v, {eXv-o-Vy sXeXvK-si-v,) and the thu-d person, when its vowel 
is an f , the mutable v {'iXv-sv or e). In the less frequent conjugation of verbs in [xi, 
both persons have a very peeuUar termination in the present, viz. [xi, at. See § 1 06. 
Obs. 3. The thi7'd person 2^1- of the principal tenses of the active is given here as 
it is in use in the common language. But it is proper to observe that in the Doric 
dialect it ends in vri, and that the vowel of the (tl of the common form is always 
long, because there has been a v dropped ; rvirrovai, Dor. tvtttovti, — Tervcpdai, 
Dor. r£TV(pavTi. See the Obs. V. 4. to § 103. 

Obs. 4. The terminations aai and co of the second pers. pass, are only to be noticed 
as a foundation or basis, since they have remained unchanged but in very few in- 
stances. The manner in which they coalesce with the preceding letters, so as not 
to be recognised, is explained below in the Observations III. to § 103. 

Obs. 5. With regard to the peculiarities which distinguish the historical from 
the principal tenses, the following points must be carefully attended to in the 
above table ^ : 

a.) A characteristic, which runs through the whole active and passive form, is, 

that the third pers. dual, which in the principal tenses is always the same 

with the second, (a,s act. TvnriTOv, tvtttstov, pass, TvnTsaOov, tvttts(t9ov,) 

constantly ends in rjv in the historical tenses, ex.gr. imperf. act. 2. irvTCTtTov, 

3. lTV7rTsrr]v,pass. 2. eTV7rreaOov,3. tTVirrkadriv. Compare below Obs. V. 

3. in § 103. 

b.) The third p)ers. pi. of the active affords also a steady distinction ; it always 

ends in ui, with the mutable v {ovaiv, aaiv, or crt,) in the principal tenses, 

but in the historical tenses constantly with a steady v {ov, av, eiaav, rjaav). 

c.) In the passive form the two kinds of tenses are completely different 

throughout the singular, and in all the tkh'd persons. The termination 

fiai in the principal tenses is always [xrjv in the historical ones, and rai 

(sing, and pi.) always becomes to. The difference of the terminations 

coming from (rai and <to is equally steady. (See Obs. 4.) 

06s. 6. The first person is wanting through the whole active in the dual ; that is 

to say, it does not diflFer from the pi. That the dual, as an old pi. especially in 

verbs, has sometimes the signification of the pi. with Poets, has been remarked 

above, § 33. Obs. 7- See particularly Od. 9. 49. Hymn. Apoll. 487. 501. Find. 01. 

% 157. 

§ 88. — Moods and Participles, 

1. The Greek language is richer in moods and participles 
than any other language. The imperfect and plus quamp. exist 
only in the indie. Other moods and participles may be formed 
of the other tenses. The future^ however, has neither conjunc- 
tive nor imper.y and the perfect seldom has a conjunctive, opta- 
tive, and imper. See below, § 137. Obs, 11. Thus every pre- 
sent, perf. 1 and 2, aorist 1 and 2, has beside the indicat. a 
conj., imperat., infinit., and participle. 

2 AU these differences are of particular use in reading the Epic poets, where they 
frequently are the only means of recognising the tenses when the augment is 
dropped. (See above the 06s. to §§ 83, 84.) 



126 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

2. The opt, derives its name from serving to express a wish, 
but is also frequently used in a variety of other connexions, as 
will be seen in the Syntax, We only observe here, that its 
signification corresponds almost thoroughly to that of the Latin 
imperfect, per/., and plusquamp. of the conjunctive, which is 
wanting in Greek. 

3. This observation is closely connected with the following 
principal rule concerning the conjugation of the conj. and opt.: — 

The conjugation of the conj, of all tenses has constantly 
for its basis that of the principal tenses, while that of 
the optative is always grounded in the conjugation of 
the historical tenses \ 
The table of the preceding Section thus contains in its upper 
series the terminations of all conjunctives, and the lower one 
those of all optatives. The peculiarity of each mood thus lies 
in the modifications of the connecting vowel, by which they are 
distinguished from each other as well as from the indicat,; 
and for this reason, this vowel has been also called the mood- 
vowel. 

4. The connecting vowels r\ and w are peculiar to the conj., 
and the following rule is here observed : — 

The conjugation of all conjunctives follows that of the con^ 
junctive in the present ; — the 
pres. conjunct, is formed of the pres, indicat. in the following 
manner : — 

Wherever the indie, has o, ov, w, the conj, has a> : 
Wherever the indie, has £, u, y, the conj. has -q or yj. 
Hence : Ind. tvtttojjlev, tvtttovgiv, TvimTai, ruTrrei^, Tvirrrj, i&c. 
Conj. TV7TTh)}iev, rv7rr(jj(7L, TV7rTi}Tai, TVTTTrig, rvTrrrj, &C. 
The terminations of all the conj. are therefore 

in the Act. w, yg, y — r}roys tjtov, loiuiev, rjTe, wai(v), 
in the Pass, w/iai, y, r]Tai, w/ieOov, 7]adov, rjadov, (v/ieda, r]aQ^, 
(jjvrai. 

5. The characteristic letter of the optative is f : it coalesces 
into a diphthong with the preceding vowel, (whether radical or 
connective,) which diphthong continues the same through all 
numbers and persons. The termination of the first person in 
the active is either jmi or rjv, (as tvtttoiiii, TiQdr\v,) and in the 

^ Thus, for instance, the opt. even of principal tenses always has t]v in the third 
person of the dual, and in the passive constantly to in the third person sing, and pi. 
(§ 87. Obs. 5.) 



VERBS. 127 

last instance this rj continues along with the diphthong in all 
the other terminations : oijui, oig, 01, &c. — eir]v, eirjQ, eirf, dij^av, 
&c. In the passive the diphthong is immediately before the 
historical termination (ruTrrot-jurjv, tiOeI-to, &c.). 

6. The imper. has a second and third person in all the num- 
bers ; its terminations in all tenses are — 

2. 3. 2. 3. 2. 3. 

Act. sing, . . , rw. dual, tov, rcov, pi. rs, TMcrav or vrwv* 

Pass. sing, [ao,) adw, dual, aOov, aOcvv, pi. aOe^aOwcrav or gOivv. 

7. The infin. has the following terminations : — 
act. uv, or vai or m, 
pass. gOql. 

8. All participles are adjectives of three terminations; and 
the fern., of course, (according to § 58, 2.) always follows the 
first decl. The masc. of the active has in the gen. vro^, w^hich 
gives c or V for the nom., and era for the fein., thus — 

(t)v or ovQ, ovaa, ov, ag, aaa, av, 

gen. ovtoq. gen. avrog. 

Eig, eiaa, ev, vg, vera, vv, 

gen. evrog. gen. wrog. 

The participle of the perfect active deviates from this ; it 
always has 

u)g, via, og, 
gen. orog. 
For the declension of these participles, see § 103. 
The participles of the passive voice all end in 

IJ.evog, T], ov. 

Obs. These terminations experience some modifications in their application ; 
they undergo a contraction not only in the conti'acted verbs, (§ 105.) but also in 
some parts of the usual conjugation, which are grounded in contraction. See 
§ 95, 7. and Obs. I. 3. to § 103. 

§ 89. — Active, Passive, and Middle Voice. 

1. The idea of a passive includes also the case, when the 
action, which I suffer, is inflicted or done by myself. It may 
therefore be expressed by the passive form, as versor in Latin 
does not merely signify ' / am turned about,' but also ^ / turn 
myself about.' This meaning of the passive is called the 
reflective ^ ; but the Greek goes still further, and employs the 

^ Compare, above, the Note to § 74, 4. 



128 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

passive voice in connexions, where the verb has only a col- 
lateral relation to the subject (for instance, ' I prepare a dwell- 
ing for myself')* All these cases, which will be more fully 
explained in the Syntax, give the significatio media ; and the 
passive, when it has this signification, is called medium, Hhe 
middle voice.' 

2. With regard to their form, we have already shown the 
difference between the passive and active voice, § 87. Each 
active tense is accordingly changed into its natural passive in 
the way which we are going to point out here for the first 
pe7'sons of the indie, of all tenses. 





Active, Passive. 


Active, 


Passive, 


Present 
Perf 


, (i), Ofiai 
a, Ka, fxat 


Imp erf ov, 
Plusq. eiv, 


ojurjv 

KEIV, JULYtV 


Put. 


( a(v, aofiai 
\ tj, ovjuai 


Aor. (^"^ 
(ov. 


ofjiriv. 



3. The four following tenses of this natural passive, viz. 

the pres. and the imperf 

the perf and the plusquamp. 
comprise the medial signification in all cases where that medial 
signification occurs, so that through the connexion or context 
alone we can discover whether they are of the passive or middle 
voice. But in the aor. and fut. the above natural passive is 
generally only a medium, or middle voice : the passive has a 
particular form for both these tenses, which have this peculiarity, 
that the aor., notwithstanding its passive signification, assumes 
the active form in its conjugation, whilst the future, formed 
from this aor., passes again into the passive form. 

Aor. pass, l^""' Fnt. pass. I ^,^'"''""' 

( r}v, ^ {^ 77cro/xat. 

In contradistinction to those forms, the above natural passive 
of the /w^. and aor. is called in grammar /w^. and aor. medii : 

Fut. med. I "J'"'' Aor. med. ( ':"'""'' 

( ovfiai, I 0{xr]v. 

But the first four tenses, which have only the natural passive 
form for both significations, and consequently should be called 
passivomedia, are simply denominated passiva in the theory of 
grammatical forms, and can only take the name of media when 
they have the niedial signification in the context, that is to say 
in the syntax. 



VERBS. 129 

The following table brings at once under review the double 
forms of the fut. and aorists of the three voices of the verb : 

Active. 

Fut. \ Z"^ 

Aor. 



\ ov 



Passive. 


Medium 


Or](TOfjiai 


aojLiat 


7](T0jiLaL 


ovjuai 


6r]v 


(jafxriv 


r}v 


OfXYJV, 



Ohs. The medial or middle form of the aor. is omitted in all verbs which have 
not such a medial signification ; it is the aor. pass, in 9r]v or r]v, which assumes this 
signification in several verbs, (§ 136.) and tlierefore the medial form occurs only in 
a limited, though considerable, number of verbs. V/e begin, however, by consider- 
ing every Greek verb as perfect, and shall notice, further on, Avhich tenses are 
actually in use in each verb. 

4. The old Greek grammarians have in their grammars a 
complete medium, or middle voice, in which the present and 
imperf. of the passive are given at length as tenses of the 
medium ; but instead of letting them be followed by the perf, 
and plusq. pass., which also have the double signification, they 
have a separate 

Perf. and plusq. medii, 
the import of which is the following. 

5. The perf. act. has two different forms, each of which ends 
in a in the first person. The common form, as will be seen 
below, either aspirates the radical consonant, or introduces a 
K, (Ki-ybj XiX^x^a, (pvM Trt^usca,) the uncommon one does neither 
{(pevjh) Tricpsvya, ^auo d^dr]a). In most instances the latter form, 
which differs so little from the other, really is the true practical 
perfect belonging to the regular prts. of the act. from which 
it is derived; and in but few instances the present has a 
transitive, and this perfect an intrans. signification. (See § 113.) 
This anomaly of a small number of verbs ought not to have 
had any influence on the theory of the Greek verb in general ; 
yet because the intrans. signification is in some instances the 
same with the reflective signification of the medium, (as, for in- 
stance, '^ / have frightened myself^ or ^ / atn frightened,^) and 
because both forms of the peif. exist together in a few verbs, 
the old grammarians placed this perf . with its dependent plusq. 
in the conjugation of the medium, though in every instance, 
where a verb has a medium, it is only 

the perf. and plusq. pass., which have the true medial sig- 
nification along with the passive one. (See § 13G.) 

6. Modern grammarians have therefore abandoned this mis- 

K 



.130 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



leading method ; and as the double formation of other tenses is 
marked by numbers in the theory of the Greek conjugation, 
§ 90. I. they now call this more uncommon joer/*. and plus q, 

Perf, and plusq, secundum, 
but it occurs only in the active voice. The perfect of the 
passive is always made in a uniform way from both forms of the 
perfect of the active. 

§ "dO.— Tenses. 

1. The Greek tenses partly have a double form, marked in 
grammar by the first and second, though this does not establish 
a difference in the signification. The perf. has a double form 
only in the act. voice, (§ 89, 6.) but the futures and aorists 
have double forms in the active, passive, and middle voice. 

2. l^he passive has besides a peculiar fut. 3, or what is called 
paulo-post-fut., which takes the reduplication of the perfect 

(§ 99). See Syntax, § 138. 

3. All the tenses of the Greek verb are distributed or classed 
in the following table under the head of what is more correctly 
called the active, passive, and middle voice. 

This table notices the augments and terminations of the first 
person. The longer line is the space left for the root of the 
verb, the smaller one in front for the initial letter repeated in the 
augment. The sp. asper over the termination denotes the 
aspiration of the preceding consonant. 





Act. 


Pass. 


Med. 


Pres. 


— w 


— ojum 


as in the pass. 


Imperf 


£ OV 


£ — ofxriv 




Perf 1. 


-f — a or Ka 


-£ — juai 




Plusq. 1. 


£-£ — av or jc£iv 


£-£ liir}V 




Perf 2. 


£ — a 






Plusq. 2. 


£-£ — eiv 






Fut. 1. 


(TO) 


OfjCTOlUaL 


— aofxat 


Aor. 1. 


£ — era 


f — 6r]v 


I — oajuriv 


Fut. 2. 


U) 


— ijcjofiai 


' — oDjLtat 


Aor. 2. 


£ — oy 


£ — rjv 


£ — GjUrjV 


Fut. 3. 


wanting 


-£ — aofiai 


wanting. 



4. The manner of combining these terminations of the tenses 
with the root of different verbs requires a particular explanation, 
called the theory of the formation of the tenses, previously to 
which we have to state what is called in grammar the charac- 
teristic of the verb, and the theme of the verb. 



VERBS. 13X 

§ 91. — Characteristic of the Verb. 

1. The letter immediately preceding the principal vowel of 
the termination of a tense is called the characteristic (dis- 
tinctive mark) of that tense. Thus^ for instance, in the above 
table (T is the characteristic of the fut. 1. and of the aor. 1. in 
the act. and med, 

2. But that letter which remains at the end of the root of the 
verb, after having rejected all which serves merely for the 
terminations of the inflections, is more particularly the charac- 
teristic of the verb. On rejecting, for instance, the w of the 
present, we find that the letter, or two letters, which precede 
the (jj, constitute the characteristic of that verb, eoe. gr. in Aey-w 
the y, in (povev-oj the ev, 

Obs. The question is not here about the etymological root of the verb, which in 
^ovevoj is the syllable ^ot*, but about the radical letters of the verb (compare the 
Note to § 39.) to which ev belongs. Thus in ^tXlw, nixdu), it is c and a, not 
X and [Xj which are the true characteristics. 

3. Verbs are divided into different classes, according to 
their characteristics. Hence verbs which have a vowel before 
the (i) of the present, that is to say, whose characteristic is a 
vowel, are called verba pura. See § 28, 1. Verbs of which the 
characteristic is s, a, o, admit of contraction in the pres. and 
imperf in the act. and pass. ; they are therefore called verba 
contracta. See § 105. Verbs of which the characteristic is one 
of the letters A, ju, v, p are called verba liquida or verba X, fx,v,Q. 
See § 101. Verbs not included in these classes are called 
verba muta. For a similar division into classes see § 100, a. 

§ 92. — Double Themes, 

1. In Greek, as in Latin, the present is considered as the 
principal tense, that is to say, the tense which serves for the 
formation of all the other tenses. This process is easy in most 
verbs, since, on rejecting the w, we find the root and charac- 
teristic of the verb, which are the basis, on which all the other 
forms of the verb are built. 

2. But in many verbs, that which remains after rejecting the 
o) of the present, is not to be immediately taken for the pure 
root of the verb ; for on stripping other tenses of the same verb 
of their peculiar terminations and augments, we find a root 
left, which is more or less different from the root of the present, 

k2 



133 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

SO that we must discriminate which form of root is the primi- 
tive one. 

3. This difference consists, in one part of these verbs, merely 
in the vowel, and chiefly in the alteration of the three short 
vowels £, a, o. As there is nothing in simple vowels why one 
should be considered as the radical vowel preferably to the 
other, the vowel of the present tense is, for uniformity's sake, 
considered as the radical vowel, as, for instance, in rpicpw, 
lTpafl)r}v, TbTpo(l>a, exactly like cleave, clave, cloven, in English. 

4. But the root of the verb in the present tense is in many 
verbs of a lengthened and fuller form, partly through a long 
vowel, or through a diphthong, whilst the other tenses have a 
short vowel, and partly through a greater number and variety 
of consonants; ex.gr, Xd-rrw tXiirov, ttikix) Itukyiv, jSaAXw t[5a\ov, 
rvTTTw hv7rr]v, raacrio Irdyriv. There is even a considerable 
number of verbs, of which the present offers a still greater 
variety, and sometimes an additional syllable, as Xujaj^avw, 
where the root is Xa/ij3av, whilst other tenses tXajSov, \r}\poiuLai, 
make the root \aj5, Xrj/3. This is the principle on which the 
present tense of a verb frequently appears in a fuller form than 
other tenses of the same verb. 

5. It is, no doubt, more natural and easier to adopt the 
simple root rather than the fundamental one; but as it would 
disturb the uniformity of the grammatical process, \i \\iq present 
of such verbs were derived from other tenses, grammarians have 
introduced the following theory. As there are verbs with 
double forms of the present, one simple, and the other fuller, 
for instance, Xdiro) and Xijunravw, tdu) and kaOiw, one of which 
generally is less used or even obsolete, we assume for tenses 
not analogous with the present another disused verbal form, 
and give to it the form of a present tense for grammatical 
purposes; for instance, fXajSov is considered as coming from 
a disused pres. Xa/3w or X/;j3w, and such imaginary or sup- 
plementary forms oi^ presents are printed in grammars in capital 
or initial letters and without any accent, AAB12, to point them 
out as not being in use. (See the second prefatory remark to 
the List of Anomalous Verbs.) 

6. Any present tense, whether in use or obsolete, which 
serves for the formation of other parts of the verb, is called a 
theme, Oifia, and any verb which requires a supplementary 
verbal form along with its real present tense, is said to have a 



VERBS^ 133 

double theme. The characteristic of the simple theme in con- 
tradistinction to other forms^ where it is not easily recognised^ 
is called the pure characteristic of the verb ; as y in the theme 
TAri2 in contradistinction to the era- in raGGio \ 

7. This plurality of forms in one and the same verb is pro- 
perly an anomaly; hence the annexed List of Anomalous Verbs 
mostly contains verbs of that kind. But when the difference 
between the usual theme^ and the obsolete or imaginary one, is 
not very great^ or common to several verbs which have the same 
characteristic in the usual present tense, it is considered merely 
as a variety of the usual conjugation, that the anomalous one 
may not be needlessly increased. 

8. We reckon here chiefly verbs of which the pure charac- 
teristic in their usual present tense is disfigured by the intro- 
duction or change of a letter. They are of three sorts : — 

1.) In verbs with the characteristic ttt, the r is a strength- 
ening addition; their pure characteristic is one of the 
labials j3, tt, 0, (compare § 20.) ex. gr. 

KpVTTTiO, TV17T(x), paiTTU), 

KPYBO, TYna, PAOQ. 

2.) Most verbs with o-a or tt have as pure characteristic 
one of the palatal letters y, k, x : for instance — 
TrpaacTU), (pplcrcrd), (^rjcrcru)} 

nPArO, ^'PIKQ, BHXO, 

in some few it is also a lingual letter. See Obs. 2-4. 
3.) Most verbs with Z (Dor. crS) have S for their pure 
characteristic ; as — 

(ppaZw—^FAAQ^, 6?w— OAQ, 
but several have also y, as — 
K/)aSw— KPATO. 
All these verbs retain the fuller form and impure charac- 
teristic only in the present and imperf. of the act. and pass. 
voice ; the rest of the tenses are derived from the simpler 
theme. But for the sake of brevity and uniformity we gram- 
matically treat the two themes as one conjugation, and con- 
sider the matter as if, for instance, in ru^w, rvirEig, and the 
like, the r of the pres. tvtttm had been rejected, or as if ?, and 
not the pure characteristic S, had been dropped before the a- 
in (ppadu) (fat. of 0pa^w). 

^ To avoid too great an accumulation of such themes, this Grammar, instead of 
noticing disused themes in Q, simply states the root, TTIT, TAT, &c. 



134 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

9. To these verbs must be added those which in the present 
tense barely differ in quantity, the pure characteristic being 
doubled in the present, which in common language is done 
only with the A, as jSoXXw tjSaXor, ariWio (mXtj eaTaXrjv, or 
the pres. tense having, instead of the short vowel of the other 
tenses, a diphthong or long vowel ; as Xsittlo Xd^Lo tXiirov, tijku) 
T{}E,(i) lTaKr]v, (paiviij cpavu) Trti^ayfco, (fytvyco (psv^M t(pvyov. They, 
too, have a simple theme, as BAAO, Aini2, <E>YrO, (Lot. fugio,) 
etc. : but such trifling differences are not sufficient to throw 
these verbs out of the usual grammatical method, which con- 
siders the present tense as a basis; hence they are stated 
below, among the regular conjugations^, as mere abbreviations 
of the root oi th.eiv present tense. 

Obs. 1. Verbs in Z,, with the simple characteristic ^, exceed the others in number 
less by their primitives, as x^^^> X^^^> Hofxai, axiW, than by the multitude of 
derivatives in tZw and d^v}, which follow the same conjugation. To the charac- 
teristic y belong all verbs denoting a call or sound, as Kpa?a>, arevd^iOf rpt'^to, 
oifiu}<^(i), &c. with a few others, of which we meet in prose with 
ord^w, (rriZit), (rrrjpic^oj, a(pv^bi, fxacrTiZo), 
and some which are fluctuating between the two formations ; see the Anoni. dpTrd^u), 
Trai'^w, [3a(TTd^(D, vvard^u).^ We even find in some other vei'bs the pure charac- 
teristic to be yy. See the Anom. TrXd^w, fcXd^w, craXTri^w, fut. TrXdy^w, &c. 

Obs. 2. The simple characteristic of some verbs in aa or tt is not one of the 
palatals, but linguals, and hence follows the analogy of those with ^, as 

7rXdo-(7a>, Trdffcrio, Trricfao}, /3Xtrri«>, (Spdaaoj, Kvaaoio, Xeucraw, iixaGaix), tpscraw, 
KopvGcroj, Xiacroixai, VKraofxai, 
(fut. TrXdffw, &c.) and two are fluctuating : see the Anom. d(pv(Ta(D, vdacru). 

Obs. 3. Some verbs have the present tense indiff'erently with ^ or tt, but follow 
only one of these double presents in the rest of their tenses ; as, in particular, 
(T(pdTT(j>} or (T^d^uj, {to kill, slay,) fat. acpd^oj, &c. and dpfi6^(jj or dpjxoTTio, {to join, 
jit,) fat. dpjxocTdj, &c. 

Obs. 4. It will be stated, § 95. Obs. 2, that the Doric dialect has a palatal letter 
in some tenses of the verbs, of which the characteristic is a lingual. 

Obs. 5. We have remarked above, in general, that the characteristic ttt always 
contains one of the three mutes of the labial organ, and (T(t, tt, either a palatal or 
(according to Obs. 2.) a lingual. But which letter it be, is generally indifferent : 
we shall see below that most verbs are used only in those tenses {fut. 1. aor. 1. 
perf. 1.) which must also change this pure characteristic according to the general 
rules, (§16. &c.) and the three mutes constantly in the same way. For instance, 
the fiU. (irj^uj merely shows that the pure characteristic of the verb jSrjaaio is a palatal 
letter, but does not indicate which palatal it is. This may indeed be inferred in 
these instances from other kindred words ^, but as it is of no importance with regard 

^ It is obvious that in most of these verbs we cannot suppose the real original 
characteristic to have been y, but that the anxiety to avoid the meeting of <t {gti- 
(tOhq, (SaffTaadelg,) caused many verbs in i^w, d^w, to assume the other form. See 
Obs. 6. 

2 Thus in the above example (Sfjarro) {to cough), the radical letter has been asserted 
to be X from the subst. (irj^ (cough), gen. (StjxoQ. Again in uxXadGit) {to form, fashion) 



VERBS. 135 

to inflection, all those verbs, of which the pure characteristic does not appear from 
the conjugation itself, may be considered, if they be with tvt, as having the cha- 
racteristic TT, and if with aa or rr, as having either the characteristic y, or (those 
of Ohs. 2.) the characteristic ^, which is grounded in the kindred termination ?. 
We therefore have only to notice the few vex'bs which really show, in any of their 
tenses, another letter than any of those which we have mentioned, as their pure 
characteristic. They are 
a.) With TTT, 

(SXaTTTOj, KovTrro), pure characteristic /3, 

[3d— TO), pOLTTTit), OaTTTb), (TlcdTTTU), piTTTU), QpvTCTU), 0. 

b.) With a(T, TT, only the Anom, (ppiacjo) — k, Anom. Xiaaofiai, — r : and 
Kopvaaco~e (§ 98. Obs. 5). 

Obs. 6. But we cannot repeat too often, that in all this we do not mean to assert 
etymological truth, but grammatical analogy. Though such formations as Trpdcraoj 
TTSTrpaya, fcXayyoj fcXaylw, can hardly be accounted for otherwise than by as- 
suming an older form, it would yet be absurd to pretend that derivative verbs like 
dWdaao), x^p'^^^^) came from an old form in yw and doj : the former, however, 
really has an aor. 2. joass. dWayiivai, and the other the Ionic 3 pers, pi. of the 
perf. p)ass. Kex(j^piSaTai. It is rather evident that other verbs have been formed 
after the analogy of those which previously existed in the language. But to draw 
the line is impossible ; at least, it would needlessly complicate the statement of 
grammatical principles. It is far better to bring all the verbs which agree in that 
kind of formation under one point of view ; and it may be supposed that several of 
the simple themes have actually been formerly in existence, (this supposition is, 
indeed, confirmed by verbs of that kind occurring in the old poets, such as j8Xd/3w, 
XiTOfiai, Spvcpoj for Ipv-'no, bovx^ foi' opvaau), and others,) and that in the pro- 
gress of the language other verbs were formed on the analogy of similar roots. 

Obs. 7. The modes of strengthening the present tense, not comprised in this 
Section, especially the lengthenmg of some present tenses with -sw and -dw, are 
reviewed below in § 112, as belonging to the anomaly of the verb. 

§ 9^.— Formation of the Tenses, 

1. The annexion of the terminations of the tenses^ as stated 
in § 90^ is not always a straightforward operation^ but fre- 
quently influenced by euphony ; and when the characteristic of 
the verb does not harmonise with those terminations, it neces- 
sitates changes and differences, besides other peculiarities in 
the usual language. 

2. It is, therefore, of importance to know which tenses are 
derived one from the other, or agreeing with each other. 

the radical Q may be inferred from such subst. as iVvoTrXdOoc {maker of ovens). 
But the inference is not always safe, because the radical letter in such derivations 
frequently is different without any apparent cause ; for instance, aor./-^ass. J/cpu/S/jf, 
adt. KQv^a, adj. icpixpioQ. This and similar instances show, what was indeed to be 
expected, that the radical letter is not always steady, but frequently fluctuating, as 
in English, to iceave and icebster, in German, decken, 'to cover,' and ein dach, 'roof.' 
Yet in most cases there is a correspondence between the verbal and nominal forms, 
and in doubtful cases the grammarian is warranted in considering the simple vowel 
of a verb as its radical letter, or pure characteristic. 



136 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Some tenses, connected in signification, are evidently derived 
one from the other ; ex. gr. the imperf. from the pres. tense, 
and plusquamp. and fut. 3. from the p erf , 

3. Of other tenses it cannot be properly affirmed that they 
are derived one from the other ; but as they agree more or 
less in their derivation from the common root of the verb, 
grammar considers them, for the convenience of the learner, 
partly as derived from each other, {ex. gr. the aor. 1. in aa 
from the fut. in ato,) and partly as exhibiting an example 
which serves to point out, once for all, in one tense what else 
would require to be repeated in each tense. 

4. The tenses are accordingly classed, in the following three 
series, in the order in which they are derived from each other 
in the generality of verbs, or stated in the grammar : — 

I. Pres. and imperf. act. and pass. 
II. Fut. and aor. 1. act. and med. 

Perf and plusq. 1. along with perf. and plusq. pass. 

and fut. 3. 
Aor. and fut. 1. pass. 
III. Fut. and aor. 2. act. and med. 
Aor. and fut. 2. pass. 
Perf and plusq. 2. 
In order to apply this table to verbs of a double theme and 
of a lengthened characteristic, the following observations are 
to be attended to : — 

In series I. the full form (double theme) and the lengthened 
characteristic remains always unchanged, ex. gr. tvtttu), stvtttov ; 
full form 7rr ; whilst the second and third series (§ 92, 8.) are 
derived from the simple theme, and in such a manner that 

In series II. the simple characteristic is always changed, 
according to the general rules, ex, gr, rv-ipu), {tvit-ctu),) perf, 
TeTV(l>a (rtrwTT-a). But 

In series III. the simple characteristic remains unchanged, 
ex.gr. arvTrov, riTvira. 

When the verb has but one characteristic, the first and third 
series retain it unchanged, but it is commonly changed in the 
second. 

5. Although one of these tenses may not be used in a verb, 
yet grammar states it, to serve as a uniform basis for others 
actually in use. 



I 



VERBS. 137 



94.. 



1. The formation of the tenses^ and their differences among 
themselves, are pointed out for each tense in only one of its 
forms, which always is the first person of the indie. All the 
other personal and modal forms are conjugated alike in all 
verbs^ as soon as that first person is known, as will be seen 
below in the paradigms (compared with §§ 87, 88). 

Obs. Only the per/, pass, is of such a nature that its formation must be studied 
in its several modal and personal terminations ; see § 98. 

2. Several tenses are formed in a manner so simple and 
constantly uniform, that they are easily known from the ex- 
amples below. We will only previously state those of the 
usual conjugation in oj : — 

1.) The present to gives the irnperf. ov — tvittw, trvTrTovc 
2.) Every tense in w is in the pass, ofxai. Thus the pres. 

w gives the pres. of the pass, rvirrh), TvirTOjULai : and the 

fut. the flit. med. Tvif^oj, TVipofiai. The § 95, 7, shows 

that the fut. 2, or circumflexum in w, med. -ovfxai, is 

comprised in this rule. 
3.) Every tense in ov is in the pass, ofirjv. Thus the 

imperf. ov gives the imperf. pass. trvTrrov, hvirTOfiriv : 

and the aor. 2. the aor. 2. med. hvirov, hvTrojwnv. 
4.) The aor. 1. med. annexes merely the syllable firjv to 

the aor. 1. trvipa^ Irvtpaibiriv. 
5.) The perf. always gives the plus quamp. in the act. voice 

by changing a into etv— rtVu^a, It^tvc^hv : and in the 

pass, by changing juat into jiriv — rarvfifiai, iTSTVfijurjv. 

See about the other persons of the plusquamp. pass, in 

particular, § 98. 
6.) Both forms of the aor, pass, give the fut. pass, by 

changing y\v into ijaoiiaL — lTv(pdr]v and Irvir^v — rv^di^- 

aofxai, TVTri}(TOfAaL. 
The rest of the tenses require particular rules. 

§ 95. — Futurum Activi. 

1. The principal form of the fut. in Greek is the termination 
od). It occurs in by far the greatest number of verbs, and is 
on that account called /m^. 1., ex. gr. 

iravcjyfut. iravaw. 



138 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

2. When the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, it 
causes the changes usually connected with (t, ex. gr, 

\iyoj, TrXtKijt), T^v^ii), flit. \i^M, irXi^ts), rsvE,io, 

6Xi(3u), X^TTw, ypafpio, OXiipdj, Xsiipoj, ypaipiv, 

GTrevdo), tthOoj, TripOu), airevcrw, ttuglo, Tripao). 

Obs. 1. When the characteristic of the verb is a lingual letter preceded by v, 
a change takes place before the a of the fut. according to § 25, 4. But the case is of 
rare occurrence ; it is most distinct in cnrkv^ix), fut. arnicu). See also the Anom. 

3. The verbs in ttt, aa or tt, and Zs having the pure cha- 
racteristic^ (according to § 92.) change irr into -ip, acr {tt) into 
2, and Z into (j, ew. gr. 

TVTTTw, (TYnO,) \viPu), 

paTTTio, {PA^Q^,) pa-ip(i), 

TCLcratOy (TAri2,) TaE,Wy 

(j)paZ(i), ($PAAO,) 0oa(7W5 

and in rarer instances (§ 92, with the Obs.) Z is changed into 
?_, and acr {tt) into (t, ex. gr, 

KpdZ(j>}} (KPAra,) Kpa^u), 

irXaaad), (HAAGO,) TrXdcrio. 

Hence, when the characteristic of the verb is 

a labial, the fut, ends in xpd), 

a palatal, „ „ 5w, 

a lingual, „ „ crw, 

a vowel, J, 55 (7w. 

4. When the characteristic of the verb is a vowel, {verba 
pura, § 91. Obs.) the syllable which precedes the termination 
o-o> is generally long, let its quantity in the present tense be 
what it may ^, ex. gr, 

^aKpvWj {v,) daKpvao), {v,) 

Tito, (t,) ^ Tiaiijy {!,) 

and consequently £ and o become rj and w, ex. gr, 

0fX£W, ^r}X6(i), <piXr}<TO)} SriX<x)(JM, 

See the exceptions in the Obs. 3, 4. 

5. The characteristic a is changed into t] in the fut., except 
when the vowels e, i, or an p precede, in which cases the a in 
the fut. is long ^, ex. gr, 

Tifidiv, UTraraw, Tijurjaoj, aTraTncrii), 

1 The x)robable reason of it is stated in the Obs. 15. 

2 Ti'w is taken here in its usual quantity, though Homer uses it also as long. 

3 Compare the analogous rules of the first decl. § 34, 2, and of the fern, in 
adjectives, § 60, 2. 



VERBS. 139^ 

j3oa(j)j lyyvcKs), j3or/crw, eyyvriatt), 

kau), fxeiciaaj, laauj, fiu^iaaw, («,) 

c^aio, (f)(i)pa(i), ^pcKTW, (pbjpacno (a). 

See the exceptions in the Obs. 6, 7. 

6. But the penultima of futures in ao-w, to-w, v(t(o, is always 
short when they come from verbs in Z, or aa, tt, ex.gr, in 
(ppaati), ciKa(T(jj, vojuiaWj kXv(tio, coming from (ppa^oj^ diKatiu), 
vojUL^ijjj Kkviiio I and in -nXdcruj, tttlgw, from irXaacTw, TrricFad)^, 

Obs. 2. The Doric dialect has ^ instead of cr, (in the fut. and aor. 1.) not only in 
most verbs with ^, ex. gr. kojlii^w, ^iKci^ui, from koh'i^ix), diKai^uj, but also in verbs 
■which have a vowel before the w in the present tense, but chiefly only when the 
vowel in the usual /«^. is short ; ex. gr. sysXa^s. (See Obs. 3.) The Dorians have, 
however, the common form along with this, and use both indifferently in verses 
according to the exigency of the metre ^. 

Obs. 3. Several verbs, of which the characteristic is a short vowel, keep this 
vowel unchanged in the fut. especially, 

yaXcuo, xaXduj, 6\doj, kAow, (to break,) (T—doj,fut. yeXaaw, &c. 
dXkd), dpKsoj, E/ilo), KaXect), riXkw, ^gw, s^w, rpsw, aiCeoj-iai, dKiojxai, 

fut. aXkaoj, aLCs(jO[xai, &c. 
d^6(i},fut. dpoau), 

dvi'U), dpvo) '^, aXKvuj, [xiOvco, TiTviD^fut. dvvau), &c. 
and some poetical verbs, {Korkit), veiKscx), Ipvo), ravvdj,) as well as a few rare and 
obsolete themes, from which the tenses of some anomalous verbs are derived, as 
Kopkau), KOifxacru}, iXdaio, &c. The quantity of the pres. tense of the verbs in vo) 
belonging to this class is yet unfixed, though on the whole it may be assumed to be 
short ; all the other verbs, which have iVtu in the fut., are partly long, partly 
undetei-mined in the present tense : see § 7- 06s. 1 0. 

Obs. 4. Some verbs are fluctuating between the two formations, partly in the fut. 
itself, and partly in the tenses derived from it, (according to § 93, 4.) which are 
the following : 

alv'soj, (to praise,) fut. alvitroj, aor. yvtaa, 'perf pass. ■yvr\nai, aor. \. p. yvsQ-qv 

(Epic, aivr]<Jijj, yvrjaa). 
TToOsu), (to desire,) fut. TzoOeaoj and rjau), perf. TiSTroOrjKa, pass, rjixai, aor. \. p. 

tiToQkaQriv. 
tku), (to tie, bind.) fut. Srjaw, perf SkcsKa, jyciss. ej-iai, aor. 1. p. ISkOrjv. 
alpeu), (to take,) fut. atp^crw, perf. pass, yprjjxai, aor. 1. p. ijpsOijv. 
See also the Anom. yan'nx), aTspsoj, tvpiaico}, v'sfiu), and PEQ under liiriiv. To 

^ The vowel in all these verbs is short by itself, and not lengthened in Xhefut.: 
were it long by itself, it would continue so in the fut., as it does in xpyt,oj, xpy<^(^' 
Whether verbs like Kvujaau), Xtvaau), vlaaoiiai or vei(7<T0[.iai, actually made Kvwaoj, 
Xevdii), v'lGOfiai, vdooixai, in the fut., as is generally assumed, is not absolutely 
decided. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gram. 

5 The instances are more rare when this form, 1. takes place also with the long 
vowel, as viica'^y, and, 2. passes over to other tenses, as iXvyixQ^v, (for -iuOriv 
from XvyiZ,it},) in Theocr. It is, however, evident that this Dorism was a partial 
practice, which gradually went over from the A'erbs, in which the radical letter is 
a palatal, into other verbs by a specious analogy. We have in Obs. 8. a perfectly 
similar and unquestionable instance with the Doric a. 

^ The verbs avvu) (to accomplish) and dpvb) (to draic up water) have in the pres, 
tense an Attic collateral form, dvvno, dpvro:. 



1-10 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

these must be added some dissyllabic verbs in vw, xxto), which shorten the v again 
in the per/, and aor. \. jmss., though with the Attics even the v of the pi'esent tense 
is long : 

per/, pass, \s\vfxai, aor. 1. pass. kXvOrjv, tduOrjv, stv9)]v, with a short v, 
per/, act. XeXvKa, rsOvKa, or dsdvica '. 

Ohs. 5. All verbs which retain the short vowel in the fut. may in non- Attic 
poetry double the cr in both the fut. and the aor. : as rtkkcraio, kKOHiaai, diKaacroj, 
iyeXacTcrt, KaXs(j(jd[xsvog, avv<T<rag ^. 

Ohs. 6. The verb dicpodofiai (to hear) has aKpodaoiJiai, conti-ary to the analogy of 
jSoa'w, dXodw,fut. rjaoi): and xpa'w, xP"'oj"«^> ^^^ XP^^^> ^^' contrary to the analogy 
of Spdu), dab). 

Obs. 7. That the lonians have in verbs, which usually make their tenses with a 
long a, an 7i instead of this long a, (as Ottjcroixai, Trfpijcrw,) and the Dorians, on the 
contrary, instead of the r] in verbs in aw always a, {rifidacj, Iftodcra,) follows of 
course from the general principle stated § 27- 06s» 5, 7- Only taw has in all the 
dialects idam. 

Ohs. 8. But the Dorians also frequently introduced d in the conjugation of verbs 
in fw, as (piXdcruj, ddaac, sirovdO)], from (piXsM, ^Iw, ttovsco. It is particularly fre- 
quent in the later Doric writers. 

Obs. 9. The following six verbs, 

ttXIw, I navigate, ttv'soj, 1 blow, vko), T swim, 

Gsu), I run, psco, I flow, %£a», I pour,] 

have in the fut., ov at least in its derivatives, tv^, ex.gr. TrXeixroixai, t-Kvivaa, 
Xivjxa, See. : and the two following, 

Kaib), I burn, KXa'no, I weep, 

the primitive form of which, peculiarly retained by the Attics, is Kaio, KXdw, with 
a, have av : Kavao), tKXavaa, See. See the Anom. 

Obs. 10. That several verbs in lo have jjo-w in the fat., is noticed below in § 112,8. 

7. The trisyllabic and polysyllabic futures, which have a 
short vowel before the final syllable <j(jj, viz. a, s, t, are sus- 
ceptible of a collateral form, which, being rather peculiar to the 
Attics, is usually called 

Futurum Atticum. 
The instances of this kind are all agreed in this, that the o- is 
dropped, and that the final syllable becomes a circumflexed or 
contracted termination. This is effected in two ways. 

8. In the verbs, of which the future ends in ao-w or taw, the 
two vowels d(jj or iw, after having dropped the o-, are contracted, 
and the same contraction takes place in the other persons, 

^ ' Compare also some verbal nouns of the dissyllabic verbs in iw and voj, as (pvaig, 
rhiQ, drXroQ, <piirr}Q. See below, § 119. Obs. 2, 5, 7. 

8 That in some of our editions, (especially in the old ones,) verbs which never 
have a short vowel are written with a double a, to show their quantity, offends 
against correctness. Yet there are verbs in which the point has always beea 
disputed, and still is partly so ; as in Ipvofxai, (to preserve,) in iir]TiaaaTo, &c. 

9 It is remarkable that all the six verbs denote a flowing current-like motion. 
See them all in the list of Anom. Verbs, especially on account of the non- Attic 
conjugation of psw, and the quite unusual one of x^w with tv. 



VERBS. 141 

according to the general laws of contraction, so that these 
futures are conjugated exactly like the present tense of the 
contracted verbs in aw and iw, as will be seen hereafter. But 
here, too, the lonians leave the form iw, ieig, uncontracted ; 
ex. gr. 

[diPaZtOy f. /3f/3a(7w, (/3<]3a(i>, j3ij3a£fc, &-C. not in use,) fat. 
Att. (5il3(0, ag, o, pL wjuev, are, tJcrt(i'), 

T^Xioj, f. TiXlau), Ion. again rtXsw, reXieiQ, fut. Att, rtXCj, 

aC) £1, pi. OVflEV, HTE, OU(Tt(l')5 

with which the fut. med. likewise agrees, wjxai, g, &c. ovf^iai, u, 
&c. Compare the present tense of the verba contracta in the 
active and passive voice, § 105. wdth the Obs. 

9. No contraction of the vowels can take place in the fut. in 
lau} after the a has been dropped, but the second vowel (o alone 
takes the circumflex, and they are then conjugated like the 
contracted verbs in £w, w, ea^. gr. 

KO/itJw, / KO/XtCrW, {-ItO,) fut. Att. KOILllM, LeiQ, LH, 
pl. LOVjulBV, teiTE, 10V(7l{v), med. KOjUlOVjUai, LUy IHTat, &C. 

Obs. 11. This fut. Att. thus has its first foundation in the Ionic dialect, to which 
the dropping of the c between the two vowels is peculiar. See above, § 28. Obs. 4, 
and compare Obs. III. 2. to § 103. The Attic dialect afterwards contracted the 
two vowels whenever it could be done, and something analogous was remarked in 
the vei'bs in 'ktm. 

Obs. 1 2. We have instances of a fut. in ew in this resolved form : reXsei, II. 9. 415. 
Kopseig, V. 831, for Kopecreig. See the Anom. Kogkvwui. But the form a), ag, like 
the corresponding ji^res. tense of the verba contracta, is not resolved by the lonians, 
(Herod. diKav, e\^g, iXwv,) but the Epics have the lengthened form, (Homer, Kpenooj, 
eXda, Trepdav,) like the present tenses of § 105. Obs. 10. The instances, however, of 
both the resolved and contracted forms are not frequent. The most uncommon are 
those verbs in which the usual jD?'^se;?i itself ends in gw and aw: reXeu), ti\u>, fut. 
TeXksi, (Homer,) rtXtX, (Plato Protag. 331.) kuXsu), KaXCJ, fut. KaXtiadi, (Demosth. 
Lept. 5.) KaXovvTag (Xenoph. Hell. 6,3, 2.) for KaXkaovrag. See likewise the Anom. 
%£w. No change can take place in most instances, that is to say, either when the 
Jut. (TO) comes from a, pres. in a'^w, {ex. gr. diKq:v for diKaafiv, of diKa^u), (SifS^ Plato 
Phoedr. 7. for /3t/3aVfi &c.) or when the simple present tense m Iw and o'w is obso- 
lete (ex. gr. d.[X(piu>, dn^inre, for dj-Kpiscru), &c. of AM<I>IEQ) : see below, ivvvixi, 
§ 96, and KopseLQ above ; aKiCq, for cKiddcrei, see the Anom. CKecdvvVfxi and others. 
To this Obs. belongs also the fut. of some verbs in uw, which is like the pres. See 
the Anom. epvija, ravvoj. 

Obs. 13. The long vowel, especially the w in the futures in wcw, is very seldom 
shortened so as to admit this contraction ; ex. gr. kprjixoure for sprjuwaere, oiKSLovvrag 
for oiKeiojGovrag, Thuc. 3, 68. 6, 23. (See about this and some doubtful similar 
instances, Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 95. Obs. 16, with the Note.) 

Obs. 14. In the verbs in i?a» the fut. in iw really is more in use than the regular 
form in iffo* : it also occurs with the lonians, but never hi the resolved form, ex. gr. 
ciyXditiaQai, Qtainuv, vojxiovyLiv, &c. in Herod and Hippoci'. 



142 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

10. The tense, which is called in grammar 

Futurum Secundum, 
after having shortened the radical syllable, annexes in the Ionic 
dialect the termination tw to the pure characteristic of the verb^ 
and in the common language contracts it into w, conjugating it 
in both the act. and the medial voice according to the rules of 
contracted verbs. Thus for instance rvTrrw, short radical 
syllable rv7r,fut. secund. tvttw, (See Obs. 16.) 

11. This fat. occurs only in verbs whose characteristic is 
\, ju, V, p, and which in general have not the future in aoj. We 
shall treat of them in particular in § 101 . Grammarians for- 
merly assumed afut. 2. in all verbs, even in those in which it 
never was used, for the bare purpose of deriving from it the 
aor, 2. J of which the formation will be shown in the following §. 
The fut. 2. pass, stands in a very different predicament ; for, 
as it is derived, not only in grammar, but in the regular 
process of the language, from the aor. 2. pass, (see § 89, 3.) it 
really occurs in every verb which has this aor., about which see 
below, § 100. 

Obs. 15. To bring all this under an analogous point of view, we take the termina- 
tion ao) {fut. 1.) for the basis. To this was prefixed s, either with or without any 
connecting vowel ; but the short form was preferred in common use, and ecrw was 
also abbreviated into sw, w, {fut. 2.) chiefly in the verbs of which the characteristic 
is X, fi, V, p. Whenever a short vowel of the root of the verb was placed before 
k(X(x), the two vowels coalesced, and the word was lengthened, Text 4, 5. {(pikrjffu), 
Ti(Toj.) But when such a short vowel was prefixed to aio, {reXs-croj, vofxi-aoj,) these 
forms remained unchanged, or the same purpose which originated the fut. 2. pro- 
duced in this instance the several forms of the fut. Att. 

Obs. 16. There are in the verbs with \, jx, v, p, a few exceptions respecting the 
fut. 1. in (Tw, which will be stated below, and also instances where the form of the 
fut. 2. occurs without the characteristic \, jjl, v, p. ^° The instances are all of the 
middle voice, viz. 

fiaxovfiai) and along with it the fuller form [xaxs<ro[xai, which has maintained 

itself, see Anom. fjiaxofxai^^, 
k^ovjxai, KaOidovfiai, see Anom. 'i^op,ai, 

^° Exactly as in other verbs the aorists txtci, tiTra, &c. which correspond to those 
in X, /Li, V, p (f oTftXa, e(pr]va). It is very probable that just as this form of the ciorist 
became more general in the Alexandrian dialects, (see the Note to § 96. 06s. 1.) 
futures of that kind got into use in some dialects without being admitted into the 
more polished ones. Hence the old method of stating a fut. 2. rvirio in the 
paradigm of tvtttoj. 

^^ These two futures, as being the regular and Attic one, might be derived from 
the jores. tense jua^sojunt, which was really in use among the lonians, but it is more 
conformable to analogy to suppose that this Ionic present tense was introduced by 
the very forms which have the appearance of coming from it. That it was the 
same with KaXkoj, will be shown in § ]10, 11, 2 ; but as this present tense is alone in 
use, grammar must derive the fut. KaXsaoj from it. 



VERBS. 143 

TTiovfiai, a form censured by the ancient critics, instead of the still more 
anomalous TTiojuat, (see 06s. 18.) from niQ, see Anom. ttsvco, 
and there are a few poetical instances : TSKuaOai, Hom. Hymn. Ven. 127. from 
TEKQ, (Anom. tiktcj,) fia9tv[xai, (Dor. for -ovfiai,) Theocr. 2, 60. from MH0Q 
(Anom. fxavOdvu)). — The note to Srju), in the Anom. AA, shows in what respect the 
Epic forms ks'ioj, dfjoj, belong hither. 

Obs. 17. The Dorians use av instead of ou in all circumflexed futures, and in the 
contraction in general ; which contraction they have according to § 28. Obs. 5. in 
common with the lonians, whenever the latter use any; ex. gr. l3a\Xco,fut. (3aXu>, 
pi. jSaXsoixiv, (SaXevfisvj compare § 105. Obs. 13. But the Dorians also circumflex 
the common fut. 1. in cw, and conjugate it as if it were a contraction of sw, ex. gr. 
ru(//w, TVi\'tv}itv, (for -ovjjisv,) TVipsirs, Tv^ivnai, (for -ovixai,) &c., and this form is 
more or less used in some verbs by Attic and other winters by the name of 

the Futurum Dorlcum, 
but merely as a fut. of the middle voice, (compare § 100, 4.) and always with the 
Attic contraction ov, ex. gr. ^8vyoj,fut. usual (psv^ovnai. See also among the Anom. 
TraiZoJ, X^^'^'j KXaiu), ttXsoj, Oeio, vsu), TTtTrro). 

Obs. 18. We meet Avith a very deviating form of a fut. in Trionai, I will drlnJcj 
and edofxai I will eat, which have the exact form of the jyres. tense of the pass, voice 
of the simple themes, to which they belong, and about which see the Anom. Trivm 
and iaOnx). 

§ ^Q.—Aor, 1. and 2. Act. 

1. The aor. in a is called aor, 1. Whenever the fut. ends in 
o-w, the termination of the aor. 1. is aa, and it undergoes the 
same change as we observed respecting orw^ for instance, 

KOjUlZh), KOflLfTii), EKO/ULLda, 

(piXiu), (pi\i](jW} — - e(j)iXr]<Ta, 

TTviu), TTvevaWf-' — iTTvevaa (see § 95. Obs. 9.) 

The aor. 1. in a of the verbs in A, fi, v, p, see § 101. 

Obs. 1. A few anomalous verbs, though not verbs in X, fx, v, p, make their aor. 1. 
in a instead of (xa, for instance, xew, t'xfia. See also the Anom. Kat'w, eiirtlv, aevo), 
aXsajJiai, Sarsojjiai, and rivsyKa under ^spw ^ — With regai'd to the aor. 1. in jca of 
some verbs in jui, (ex. gr. iSuJKa,) see below the verbs in [ii. 

2. The aor. in v is called aor, 2. In the common conjugation 
it is the termination ov, which is added to the characteristic of 
the verb in the following manner : 

i.) the aor. 2. is always made from the simple theme and 
pure characteristic of the verb, whenever (according 
to § 92.) the latter has a lengthened form in its pres. 
tense ; 

1 The Alexandrian dialect, (§ 1. Obs. 10.) formed of sevei-al verbs, which com- 
monly have only the aor. 2. in ov, an aor. in a, ex. gr. dda for dSov, tXnrav 3 pi. 
for tXiTTOv, and the like. See the Note to Obs. 9. — Hence also some medial forms of 
the aor. 2. are found in non- Attic wi'iters fluctuating between and a, for instance, 
evpavTO for i'vpovro. 



l-l'l A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

ii.) it generally renders short the penultima of the present ; 
iii.) it partly changes the £ of the radical syllable into a. 

3. By these changes alone the aor. 2. distinguishes itself 
from the imperf.; and all verbs^ in which none of these changes 
can take place, (as a^vh), jpacpu)^ and the like^) or in which the 
bare quantity of the vowel would constitute the difference, 
have no aor. 2. act. whatever ^ 

4. Moreover it does not occur in any derivative verb, formed 
from other w^ords with fixed terminations^ as ajw, ijtu, alvto, vvw, 

EVd), OlO, a(jt), id). 

5. Most verbs have the aor. 1., and but few, comparatively 
speaking, the aor. 2. In the grammar, however^ the latter is 
set down in many verbs, which in reality have it not, because 
many verbs, though destitute of the aor. 2. act., yet form the 
aor. 2. pass, on the same principles; hence this formation is 
preferably shown once for all in the aor. 2. act., and the aor. 2. 
pass, is derived from it ^ 

6. The changes and abbreviations of the characteristic and 
radical vowel of the pres. tense into the characteristic and 
vowel of the aor. 2. (mentioned above 2.) are effected in their 
several instances in the following manner : 

Characteristic 
Pres. AX Aor. 2. A „ „ jSaAAw, t^aXov 



I 



TT „ „ rVTTTlx), ^frUTTOV 

OV 

„ 5, paTTTOjf ^'ippa(j^ov 



j3 ,, ,, KpVTTTW, ^bKpvfi 

„ 5, paTTTOjf ^eppacj) 

„ (Tor, TT ,, y ^ ;, *5, Ta(j(j(jL), ^tTayov 

y f ^ 5, „ (jypa^ijt), ^B(l)padov 

" ^^ \ 7 ;? 55 KpaZcOj tKpayov 

a Vowel 

„ ai „ a „ ,5 TTTaipw, tiTTapov 

,,7} „ a ,, }, XijOisj, sXaOov 

r t ,, ,, XeiTTLO, 'iXlTTOV 



u „ ^. £ or a in the verbs A, ^t, v, p, of which we 

( treat § 101. 

£v „ i; 5, „ (jiEvyMf i(pvyov 

£ „ a „ „ TpiiTisJ, tTpairov. 



2 But they may form an ao7\ 2. pass. ; for instance, kypacprjv. See below § 100. 

3 With regard to the aorlsts stated Text 6, as examples, the leai'ner must be 
informed that the forms tTvirov, iKpvjSov, eppacpov, irayov, never occur at all, or 
at least only in a very few passages, which on that account are suspected of being 
corrupted ("they should be tVi'^l^a, 'ira^a, &c.); they are stated here merely on 
account of the aor. 2. pass, (as IrvTrrjv, eicpvf^rjv,) which is really in use. 

^ Of the verbs which in their <7<r conceal another radical letter than y, (§ 83.) 
which must of course re-appear in the aor. 2., there is none but the poetical 
Xiaaufiai, IXirofxriv^ (sec Anom.) which has an aorist of that kind. 



VERBS. 145 

Obs. 2. The form of the aor. 2. bears the same relation to the simple theme as 
the imperf. to the pres. tense in use ; but distinguishes itself from the imperf. partly 
by its aorhtic signification, (of which we treat in the Syntax,) and partly by having 
its own moods and participles, made after the form of the present. And there is 
this constant analogy, that the real imperf. of a verb always conforms itself exactly 
to its usual ^9 res. tense, and that consequently a true aor. in the indie, differs from 
the usual imperf., and that in the other moods it difi'ers from the usual pres. tense. 
Hence, for instance, ly^aipov necessarily is the imperf. and ypcKp-gg the conjunctive 
present, &c. 

Ohs. 3. Some imperfects seem to form an exception to this genei-al rule, and to be 
aorists at the same time ; but, on examining them more closely, we find that they 
all are, at least in practice, mere aorists. Such are 'i(priv^ (see § 109. (pVf^h) ^^^ 
e7rpidiuT]v, rjQ6}x-i]v, (from ipofiai,) lOiyov, about which see the Anom. Homer has 
k\v(j} {to hear) ; its pres. tense is in use, yet tKkvov always has the signification of 
the aor. Homer also frequently uses the imperf. of other verbs as aorists, par- 
ticularly for the sake of the metre ; but it would be very improper to consider as 
imperf. idiKov, iTerjxov, ixpaiaiiov, and some others, of which the pres. tense occurs 
nowhere, and which of course are employed only as aorists. That 7]7r acpov, 
d\a\K£v, and the like, are still more improperly considered as imperfects, appears 
from § 85. Ohs. 2, Avith the note ^. 

Obs. 4. The same analogy respecting the distinction of the aor. 2. from tlie im- 
perf. obtains also in those verbs with double themes, which, on account of their 
more considerable deviations, can only be noticed in the list of Anomalous Verbs, 
as XofAJSavu), ajiaprdvoj, &c. For in them too the aor. 2. is constantly the imperf. 
of the obsolete form, £\a/3oj/, r/jLtaprox/, from AABQ, (AHBQ,) 'AMAPTQ. 

Obs. 5. Hither belongs also the aor. of some verbs in sco and do*. These termi- 
nations are not derivative in some verbs, but merely lengthened forms of the 
primitive simple one, (§ 92. Obs. 7? and below, § 112, 8.) of which the aor. 2. as 
KTvirsu) aKTVTTov, yodio 'iyoov, (from KTYIIQ, TOQ ^,) has maintained itself as 

^ The separation of the aor. 2. from the imperf. might be historically accounted 
for in this way. The Greek language originally made no distinction between the 
signification of the aorist and that of the imperf, and both historical prceterites 
in V and a {irviroi' or 'irvrrrov, and ervxpa) were probably formed for that mixed 
signification witliout any distinction, just as the German and English languages 
have imperf of one syllable and imperf in ed. {I find, found ; I print, printed.) 
Hence the import of the aor. and imperf. is not fully distinguished one from the 
other in the oldest writers (§ 137. Ohs. 4). But when the Greek language began 
to observe a marked diff'erence between the signification of the aor. and that of the 
imperf, the latter gradually assumed the fixed form v, but the aor. did not on that 
account immediately confine itself to the form of a. This form in many verbs was 
probably as unusual to the Greeks as / seed, failed, named, is to an Englishman, 
instead of / saw, fell, ran. When, owing to the great variety of the Greek verbal 
forms, the prceterite in ov also acquired a double form, it may have been dei'ived 
in a diff'erent manner from the same p)res. tense, (JXenrov, IXittov,) or from an already 
existing double theme of the verb, {tXa^ov, iXdjxfSavov,) the signification of the aor. 
would naturally be gradually attached to one of them ; but the inclination to attend 
to analogy would have the efiect of confining the aor. to that form in v which was 
furthest removed from the usual ^;res. tense ; and when later wants required the 
separation of the moods and participles, which originally had probably a common 
form with the ^;res. and pirceierite, they wei'e made partly for the aor. conformably 
to analogy, (from the form in a,) and partly (for the form in ov) recourse was had 
to the moods and the participles of the unusual pres. tense, which was likewise the 
basis of the indie, yet Avith some deviations in the accent, Avhich the ear required in 
the infin. and part ici 2^1 e, {Xnrtiv,XL7rkaQai, Xnnjjv,) because they generally denote the 
past, and their terminations, tiv, taOai, ojv, remind us too distinctly of the present. 

"^ See also the anomalous Trirveuj, arvyeoj, ropeoj, fiTjKdoixai, fivKdofxai, and 
compare XrjKiuj and Oopeoj in XdaKU), BpojtJKUJ. 

L 



146 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

otlier tenses have maintained themselves in some verbs. (Compare the 'perf. 2. 
§ 97. Ohs. 4, and the aor. 1. in the Anom. yajuew.) 

Ohs. 6. The abbi'eviation of the penultima {XrjOo) 'iXaQov, (ptvyh) '((pvyov) may 
also be justly considered as a return to the old form of the verb, which frequently 
(as Ave have seen above, § 92.) has been lengthened only in the lyres. tense. And 
even the change of f into a may be considered in that light, since we likewise find 
this a in the Ionic dialect in the pres. tense of some of these verbs, as rpaTrw, 
rdfivb). But as, notwithstandmg the probability of some instances, we never can 
arrive at an absolute certainty on the whole, the kindred words, ex. gr. (pvyrj and 
the Jjatmfugio, may, just as well as ecpvyov, have been abbreviated from (ptvym : 
the Ionic rpaTrcj may, just as well as erpuTTov, have been derived from rpsTroj 
through a change of the vowel ; and as there are, besides, so many verbs which 
change nothing but their vowel, it is better not to increase the number of verbs of 
double forms or anomalous verbs, particularly as changes of the vowel in prceterites 
are also frequent in other languages. At the same" time, it is very probable, that 
in part of these verbs the primitive short radical syllable of the present tense was 
lengthened and strengthened, whilst in another part the originally long radical 
s} liable was actually made short in the aor. and other forms ''. 

Ohs. 7. In some verbs, however, the syllable which precedes the termination is 
long in the aor. 2, and offers no difference but a simpler form, or the change of the 
vowel into a, ex.gr. ivpov, l^Xaarov, tTrapSov (see the Anom. tvpiffKCJ, ^Xaaravoi, 
TTspdoj, and others). — The length by position is destroyed in some few poetical 
forms by a transposition, ex. gr. dspKd) 'idpaKov : see also the Anom. irspdio, 
dapOdvoj, TspTTO). 

Ohs, 8. With regard to the aor. 2. in r}v, lov, vv, and the syncopated aorists of the 
act. and pass, voice, see below the verbs in fxi and § llO.' — about the a instead of 
in some medial forms, {ex. gr. evpdfirjv,) in non-Attic writers, the Note above to 
Ohs. I. — and about some anomalous verbs, which impart a neutral signification to 
the aor. 2, whilst their aor. L has the transitive meaning, § 113. 

Ohs. 9. We have just seen in the first Ohs. to this Section, that some verbs form 
the aor. 1. with the characteristic of the aor. 2 ; but Ave also meet with the op- 
posite case, viz. the aor. in ov with the characteristic a, of which we have a most 
complete instance in the aor. of the verb tt/tttw : this is commonly derived from 
IIETQ, and makes tinaov, TTiatlv, and to this may be added the Epic l^ov, 
kj3f](TeT0, IdvGeTo. See the Anom. iKviofxai, [Saivcj, Svco, and some imper.; olaa 
compared with the fut. o'iaoj, see the Anom. ^spw, and the Epic d^are from ayw, 
Xs^eo, opaeo, (see the Anom. Xkyoj, opvvni,) compared Avitli the imperf. (3r)<yeo, 
Suato of the afore-mentioned indicatives ". 

§ 97. — Perfectum 1. and 2. Activi, 
1. The peif. act. has the same terminations {a, ac, £v or e, 

^ That most, if not all, analogy in language originates in this way, is an incon- 
testable truth. It was natural that, as the narrative form (of the p)rceterite) became 
more frequent, the plastic form (the pres.) was made more prominent by a stress 
laid on the principal syllable ; but it was equally natural to endeavour, by w^ay of 
contrast with the pres., to accent the distinctive syllables of the prceterite, and thus 
obscure the principal syllal:)le of the verb, which the vivacity of narration would, 
moreover, cause to be pronounced with greater rapidity. 

* The custom formerly was to consider ail these as forms derived from t\\e fut., 
contrary to the analogy of the language. The above statement makes it sufficiently 
obvious that, as the language had formed the two aorists in ov and a without a, 
iIttov and tlira, eUov and eWa, (see Ohs. 1. with the Note,) it might likewise form 
both in (70V and aa with (T, eTrsaa (see TriTrrw) and 'iirtaov, edvffdfirjv and kSvao- 
lii]v. The aorists in aa and aov were, however, generally preferred ; yet there are 
remnants of the formation m a and ov. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 96*. Ohs. 10. 



VERBS. 147 

&c.) in its different forms^ but varies in its characteristic. The 
perf. 1. has its own characteristic, but the /?e?/. 2. always has 
the unchanged characteristic of the verb. 

2. But the perf . 1. also varies its ow^n characteristic. 

a.) When jS, ir, (p, or y, k, x^ ^^ ^^^ characteristic of the 
verb, this characteristic becomes (or continues) aspi- 
rate, and an a is annexed ; for instance, 

Tp7j3ii), XeiTUJj ypacpWi — Terplcpa, Xi\£(pa, yiyoafpa, 

Xly(jt), ttA^kw, Tev)^(i), — XiXex^dj 7r£7rX£;)(a, T£-£u\a. 
If this characteristic of the verb be changed in the 
pres. tense, the pure characteristic becomes aspirate ; 
for instance, 

Tv—Tw, {rvxpoj,) rirvcpa ; rdacrw, {ra^w,) — TiTa)(^a ', 

GTYjpiZw, (o-rrjpt^w,) — £OTr]pi;^a ; 
or more generally expressed : 

the perf. 1. has 0a, where in the fut. is 'iLw, 

b.) When the characteristic of the verb is a lingual letter 
or a voivel, the termination of the perf. 1. is /ca, and 
the same changes of the vowel and characteristic take 
place as in ihefut. before the termination (tw. Hence, 
where the/«^. has the pure termination o-w, the ^e//. 1. 
changes it merely into /ca ; for instance, 

TLd), (rtcrtu, I,) raTiKci} 

(piXioji {(piXijatt),) 7T£(piXriKa, 

iQvQouib), [Ipvdpiadw, a,) i]pvdgiaKa, 

(JTTCKi), (TTTCKTd), («,) tCTTraKU, 

TTvid)) {nvEvcru),) iriTTvevKa. 

The verbs in X, /.t, v, p, have also kq in the perf. 1. : 
see § 101. 

3. The perf. 2. (formerly called perf medii, see § 89, 4-6.) 
annexes the same terminations to the characteristic of the verb 
without any change ; for instance, 

X7]9(jj XiXy^Oa, GrjTTijj (T£(7Tj7ra, ^i.vy(i) Trirpsvya. 

4. But three circumstances must be attended to : 

a.) When the characteristic is impure in the pres. (§ 92, 6.) 
the simple root and the pure characteristic appear as in 
the aor. 2. ; for instance, 

L 2 



148 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

7r\i}(j(T0), (riAHrO,) — TTETrXrjya, 
(ppiacrto, {<PFlKQi,) — iricppiKa, 
oZ,i^o, (OAOj) — ■ o^M^a. 

b.) This form is, on the whole, fond of a long vowel in 
the root, even when it is short in the tenses which have 
the simple radical vowel. Hence the pres. is again 
lengthened in the above instances. 

(pevyii), aor. 2. ecpvyov, — iricpzyya, 
\y}9(j), aor. 2. eXaOov, — XiXr]6a, 
mjTTU), aor. 2. pass. saaTrrjv^ — o-tVrjTra. 
The rf is assumed in the perf. only when the strengthen- 
ing of the present tense consists of a diphthong, or of 
a length by position, 

1. ea^.ffr. daioj, {aor. 2. eBaov,) — didrja^, 

2. OaWoj, (fut. OaXw,) — TiOrjXa. 

But after p and after vowels we have a instead of r], as, 
for instance, 

KpaZw, (jEKpayov,) — KEKpaya, 

taya, aada, in Anom. ayvvfii, av^avio. 
c. But this perf. is also particularly fond of the vowel o, 
and consequently this alone not only remains unchanged 
in jcoVrw, (KOIIQ,) KSKona, (Homer,) but is also used as 
a change for £, as 

(pepj3ii), ■ — TTE^OjojSa, 

TEKO, — rtrojca (see the Anom. tiktw). 
This has a different effect on the diphthong si of the 
pres. according as e or t is the radical, which may be 
discovered in the tenses which shorten the vowel. 
When the radical vowel is e, (which, however, occurs 
only in the verbs A, lu, v, p,) h is changed into o, but 
when L is the radical vowel, h is changed into ot ; for 
instance, 

(TTTSLpCJy {fut. cyiTEpCJ,) ECTTTOpa, 

XdircOf {aor. 2. sXnroVi) ■ — XiXonra. 
5. But the greatest number of verbs, especially the deriva- 
tives, have the perf. 1. The perf. 2., like the aor. 2., (§ 96, 4. 
occurs therefore only in primitive verbs. It may also be 



1 



^ It is not correct to write dedya and 7rs(l)yva,as<jypa, &c. neither here nor in the 
corresponding instance of the aor. 1. of X, /i, v, p. Tlie perf. 2. always has the 
simple or abbreviated root of the verb (liere AA, $AN, &c,) for its basis, and 
lengthens its vowel. According to the analogy of ^evyoj, irk^ivya, it might indeed 
resume the at of the pres. ; but there is no motive for its further change in y. 



VERBS. 149 

observed that the ]perf. 2. prefers the intransitive signification. 
See Ohs. 5. 

Ohs. 1. Some perf. have likewise the change of the vowel into o, as TrsfXTrio, (to 
send,) TTSTTOfji^a, kKstttoj, {to steal,) KSKXo<pa ^, t^sttu), {to turn,) and rps^w, {to 
nourish,) rsTpocpa^. See also Xgyw, (rvviiXoxa, among the Anom., and the change 
of fi into OL in Sk^oiiza of AEIQ, see the Anom. deiaai. 

Obs. 2. With this convei'sion of a into o corresponds the change of rj into a> in the 
peif. of the Anom. priywiii, (PHFQ,) 'ippojya *, and related to both are the w and 
intercalated in some ^:>^?/., which else would be dissyllables ; the o according to 
the Attic reduplication : for instance, e9(o, {tWa,) e'iwOa, dyo), ^%a, dyi^oxa. See 
also in the list of Anomalous Verbs, edrjdoKa under iaOico, tvrivoxct under (pspu), 
dvf]vo6a and IvrjvoOa, each for itself, and the 2^<^iss. forms awpro under a'ipoj, 
sojvrai, in a Note to tjjjtii, § 108, 1. ^ 

Obs. 3. That according to the Attic redupl. the vowel is shortened in d.Kov(o 
aKrjKoa, d\ei^(o dXrjXicpa, 'EAEY9Q e\r]\v6a, has been noticed, § 85. Epic poets 
were allowed for the sake of the metre to rechange the r] of this per/, into a short 
d ia the paHic'iples fern., as aetrapyXa, reOaXvla, dpapvla. 

Obs. 4. The case is the same with the few instances of the per/. 2. in verbs in ia» 
and cicj, like plykij) epplya, }xvKdo}xai, {aor. e/xvKov,) fisfivKa, as with the aor. 2. in 
§ 96. Obs. 5. They point to simple forms PITQ, MTKQ. See also the Atiom. 
yr]96(i}, dovTr'sb), firjKdopiai. 

Obs. 5. That the number of per/. 2., taking even those into the account which oc- 
cur only in poets, is but vei'y limited, has already been noticed in Text 5. We will 
just mention in particular s, among those belonging to transitive verbs, dKrjKoa, 
XkXonra, tstoko, tKTova, TrkivovQa, oWa, 'icnropa, 'iaTopya, oirojTra, csdopKa, and 
among the intransitive, KSKpdya, XeXdKa, rerpTya, "nk^p'iKa, epplya, toiKa, e'lioQa, 
'idda, odojda, sXr]Xv9a, trsarjpa, TsOrjXa, rsOrjTra, [xsfxrjva, Ksx^va, ysyova, Ks^o^a, 
TrsTropda, jisuvica, (fivKaofiai,) along with some, which properly are intransitive, 
and only become transitive in particular connexions, as XsXrjOa, Trs^tvya, dsdia. 
To these may be added from § 113. Obs. 3, 4, those belonging to verbs which are 
partly transitive and partly intransitive in some of their tenses, and in which the 
2)erf. 2. in particular has the intransitive signification. 

06s. 6. But as the perf. is not so much needed in the copious Greek language as 
in other languages, the ^:ie?/. act. does not occur, or occurs but very rarely, in many 
verbs, which have no perf. 2., and of which the per/. 1. would sound harsh or 
strange ; it is supplied by the aor. or by a circumlocution with the p)erf. pass. (See 
below, § 134. 06s. I.) 7 

2 The usual aor. 2. pass. UXaTrrjv shows that the pure characteristic is not 
(in which case KSKXocpa might as well be the perf. 2). 

2 Terpocpn, as coming from rpkcpco, (when it may also be considered as perf. 2.) 
occurs i)ut seldom ; in Od. \p. 237, it is intransitive ; in Soph. Q^d. C. 186, it is 
transitive. As perf. of rpsTru) we find it without any various readings in the old 
writers. Soph. Track. 1009. We meet in later writers (Matthise's Gr. Gr., English 
transl., § 183, 3, p. 228.) with rerpacpa. 

* Compare TrsTrrw/ca in the Anom.. Tr'nrru). 

^ See in Buttm. Lexilogus 1., towards the end, a more detailed explanation of 
these forms. 

^ We merely state here the perf. themselves, and observe that, though they all 
are formed from tlieir themes according to the above rules, they mostly belong to 
Anomalous Verbs stated below in the list, with which the learner must already be 
familiarly acquainted, to trace every one of the perf. mentioned here to its right 
verb. 

'It was a genei-al rule with the Greeks, that if any form of a verb sounded dis- 
agreeably or strange, or was attended with obscurity and equivocation, it was dis- 



150 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

See about the pof. of the conj., opt., and imper., § 137. Obs. 11. 

Obs. 7- The K of the perf. 1. in rca is sometimes dropped by the lonians, when it 
is m verbs pure, whereby the perf. 1. becomes the perf. 2. Hither belong the 
Homeric participles, 

KtKa(pr]ojQ, Ti.Tir]ojQ, rsrXrjijjg, and others, for -rjKcjg. 
The same is done in Epic poetry, on making the vowel short, in the 3 pers. pi. and 
in the participle of some words, as — 

^tfidaai, (3el3au}Q, for (3e(5f}Ka(n, (5t[5rjKijjQ, from BAQ, {Anom. /3aiVw,) Tre^vacri, 
7n<pv(jjQ, for TTtcpyKaGi, Trs^vicojg, from 0yw, 
and there are some old perf. of which these forms only, and none whatever in ku, 
occur ; as, fxsfxdaai, fxsfxaojg, dtddaai, Sedawg (see the Anom. MAQ, AAQ). But 
the Anom. AEIQ, deiaai, has both SedoiKa and dsdia, which are used alike, and 
conjugated throughout. Hence the 1 pers. sing, is also assumed for the above 
forms, though it occurs nowhere : itk^va, fxsixaa, SeSaa, jSsjSaa, and likewise 'icxTaa, 
(for 'icrrrjKa or earaKa, see below toTT^jui,) ykyaa, rWvaa, TBrXaa, (see the Anom. 
yiyvofiai, OvrjcTKCi), TXrjvai,) whence some syncopated forms like /SljSajticv, Ttdvdvai 
(for (3e[5da[xev, nOvaivai). See § 110. 

§ 98. — Perfedum Passivi. 

1. The perf. pass, annexes the terminations fim, aai^ rai, &c. 
and the plusqo juriv, go, to, &c. not as is done in the other pass. 
forms^ by means of the connecting vowel, (§ 87. Obs. 5. of^iai, 
erai, &c.) but immediately to the characteristic of the verb. 

2. When the characteristic of the verb is a labial, palatal, or 
lingual letter, those letters are changed before /x, a, r, accord- 
ing to the general rules in § 20, 22, 23, 24 ; thus for instance 
TviTTU), (TYnO,) Tpij^oj, ttXekw, rfv;)(;w, (TYXO,) irdOtt), ^d(t), 
<j)paZ(jJ, (^PAAI2,) have in the perf. and plusq. pass. 

rhv-jufxai., T^v-ipai, riTv-TTTai, for -irfxai, ncFai, wrai 
plusq, iTtTpi-pifxrjv, Irirpi-ipo, hiTpi-irTO, for /3/irjv, jdao, (5to 

TreirXey-imai, 7re7r\E-E,ai, TrfTrAf-Krat, for Kjuai, Kcrai, KTat 
plusq. iTETv-yfJLYiv, hlrv-^o, It^tv-kto, for XjUjjv, X^^' X^^ 

TriTTU-Gixm, TriTTEi-aai,^ TriiTU-GTai., for 0/xat, Qaai, Brai 

y-ajtjaii y-rrai, y-arai, for ^fiai, ^aai, crdt 
plusq. £7rf^|Oa-o-/xrjv, liri^Qa-ao, liric^pa-GTO, for ^jur^v, Sgo, Sto, 
and to prevent the meeting of three consonants, (§ 19, 2.) the o- 
must in the further conjugation of this perf. and of the plusq. be 
dropped before the terminations aOov, aOriv, g6e, GOai, gSio, &c. 
for instance, 

2pers.pl. and dual, TeTv-(l)Oov, TiTv-(l)OE, for ttgOov, — ttgOe, 

used, though it might appear of great grammatical importance ; another turn of 
expression was preferably resorted to. Little attention, however, can be paid to 
this circumstance in the theory of grammatical forms, which notices what analogy 
requires, and leaves practice to individual observation. 

^ Homer's Tr'sTrvuaai is only a poetical or metrical redupl. instead of TreTTvcai 
(Plato Protag. 310). 



VERBS. 151 

inf. 7reTr\i-\6ai} TETa-)(9ai, for -Kcrdai, — y^dai, 
2 per s. imp. Tmrd-adw, 7T£(l>pa-G6w, for OdOto, — '^(tOcj ; 
but instead of the 3 pers. pi. vrai, vto, there generally is a cir- 
cumlocution used with the verb uvaij to be, TarvfXfxivoL (ai) 
u(t\v, and in the plus q. Tjaav. 

Ohs. 1. We suppose for uniformity's sake, that in verbs having a lingual letter for 
their characteristic, ex. gr. {TzeiOoj) TrsTrei-aOov 2 jje^s. dual, the radical letter 6 has 
not been ejected before (rOov, but the letter (T in 9cj9ov, and thus 69ov has become 
g9ov, according to § 24, 2. 

Obs. 2. The lonians, however, have no occasion for this circumlocution, because 
instead of -vtul -vro, they may use -arai -aro, which the Attic writers sometimes 
imitate in these tenses. See more detailed I'emarks about this in Obs. IV. 3. § 103. 

3. When the characteristic of the verb is a vowel^ the 
terminations ij.ai, am, rai, &c. are annexed to the voivel of the 
fat,, and the third pers. pi. is regularly formed by vrai and vro, 
since three consonants do not meet here together, ex. gr. 
TTOiioj {7roii](Tw) — irf-TTGiri—fxai, crai, rat — TTETTOtrjyrat 
veil) {vEV(Tto) — vlvev — fiai, crai, rat — vivevvTai. 

Obs. 3. The change of e into o does not take place in the pass, voice ; ex. gr. 
kXetttoj, {kskXo^u,) fCfiKXtjUjuat. But the three vei-bs rpsTrw, (to turn about,) Tpk<p(o, 
(to nourish,) and aTps(po), (to turn,) have the a in the |?e;/. ^ass. Terpaixfiai, TiTpaxpai, 
&c. Ts9paiJt.fiai, (from Tpscpoj, Opsil/u),) 'icrTpamxai. 

Obs. 4. Some verbs change the diphthong tv (which they have in the pres., or 
take only in the /wt) into v in the perf. pass.; ex.gr. Tevxu), (rs-evxa,) TSTvyfxai. 
Tiie same with (psijyio and ttvsu), (ttvevgoj, Tr'sTrvsvKa,) TrsTTvvfiai. In ■x^sb) (x^vacj) 
this is already done in the perf. act. Ksxvica, Kkxyfiai. See § 95. Obs. 4. about the 
altered quantity of some verbs in euj and voj. 

Obs. 5. The a in the pierf. 2?ass. is properly (§ 23.) the changed lingual letter of 
the root itself before the fx, which lingual letter has maintained itself unchanged in 
some few forms in Epic poetry, KEKad[xaL, 7rs(ppadfiai, from KAAQ, (see Anom. 
Kaivvf.iai,) 0pa'^w, Ki.K6pv9}iai from K0PY9Q, ^ fcopucrcrw. 

06s. 6. The a, however, is also adopted by several verbs of which the character- 
istic is a vowel, and not a lingual letter ; as, 

ciKovii) i'jKOvaiJLai, KsXevco KSKsXevcrfxai. 
The same with Trpiio, xp'ioj, TraXaioj, Trraioj, paio), 9pav(jj, vu), (3u(o, ^v(o, and %oa>, 
K'sx<jJ(Tfiai, and generally with all verbs which do not change their short vowel ; 
ex. gr. reXsMj, (rsX'saoj,) TtTiXtaiiai, as well as ^sw, aKSOfj-ai, aTrdu), 9Xd(u, dvvoj. 
See the Anom. KXeioj, t'ho. 

Obs. 7. In case two yy should be requisite before fx, one is dropped, as £Xfy%w, 
perf. tXfjXeyxa, pass. eXr^Xeyixai, a(piyYit) ta(piyyLai '.^ the rest of the terminations 
generally remain, eXr]Xey^ai, yKvai, &c. i.G(pLy%ai, &c. 

Obs. 8. In the same way, when the perf. pass, requires two fin, and the root has 
a third fi, one of them is dropped of course : — Ka'/^Trrw — KSKafxixai, KEKOfji-ipat, &c. 

2 This radical is confirmed by the subst. Kopvg, v9nQ. Else it might be con- 
sidered, according to the old fashion, as an intercalated 9 in lieu of a (KXav9fxbg, 
6pxvdl^bQ,% 119. Obs. 3). 

^ There is no doubt that this y by itself is then the nasal sound 7ig ; compare 
§4,4. 



153 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

4. It is partly on account of the difficulty of their formation, 
and partly because they are seldom wanted, that the conj. and 
opt. generally are not formed at all, but a circumlocution with 
uvaL is resorted to, T^rvfiiiivoq (rj, ov,) w and dr]v. 

Ohs. 9. These moods can be formed only when there is a vowel before the termi- 
nation, which easily emerges into the terminations of the conj,, and is readily com- 
bined with the characteristic i of the opt. ; for instance, KTdo[xai, KSKTtjuai, 
conj. KfKT(t)fiai, y, rjrai, &c. 

opt. KEKTyfXrjV, KSKTyO, KSKTyTO, &c. 

There are but few isolated forms of trisyllabica;! perf., which all are anomalous. 
Thus Plato has the co7ij. tKTtrfxrjaOov, {r'sfivio, rirfjirjijiai,) Andocides the conj. 
dia(3s(5Xr]<j9e (/3aXXw, l3s(S\ij[xaL). See also KSKXrjixai and [x'eixvrjixai under KaXsoj 
and mnvrjcFKco. Even when the radical vowel is t or v, the opt. may be formed by 
absorbing the additional t, which renders the vowel long, but Homer's XeXvTo, 
Od. 6, 238. (Xvb), XsXvixai, § 95. Obs. 4.) is probably the only instance which 
occurs *. 

§ 99. — Futurum 3. 
The third fut. or paulo-post-fut. pass, derives its signification 
(§ 138.) and its form from the perf. pass., of which it retains the 
augment^ substituting o-o/xat for the termination of the perf.; 
hence we need only compare the 2 pers, of the perf. in aai, 
(\pai, ^ai,) and change at into ofiai ; for instance, 
TervjUjULai, {rirvxpai,) — r^rv^pofiai, 

rLrQafinai, {rtrpaipai,) — Ttrpa-ipOfJLaiy 
TETayiiiai, [rha^ai,) — rsra^o^af, 

rriirucjfxaL, {Trlirucrai,) — ireirdaoiiai, 
iTE<piXy]fxaL, {TrE(pi\r}(7aLf) — 7r£^tXr/<70jua<. 

Ohs. 1. Whenever the vowel of the fut. 1. is shortened in the perf. pass., the 
fut. 3. takes again the long vowel : dsSrjffOfiat, XtXv(TO[ji,at (see § 95. 06s. 4). ^ 

Obs. 2. There is no 3 fut. to be met with of the verbs X, /x, v, p, and there are 
but few of those which have the temporal 



§ 100. — Aoristus 1. and 2. Pass. 

1. All Greek verbs have the aor, pass, either in 6r]v, or 
merely in riv, and several have both kinds at once; the former 
is called aor. 1. the latter aor. 2. (See § 89, 3.) 

^ Others insist on /cfKT^rai, XtXwro, &c., but I have adopted the accentuation of 
some MSS. as alone conformable to analogy ; for KEKTOJfiai and KSKTyro must stand 
in the same relation to KSKTrjuai, and XkXvTo to XkXvfxai, as rvnTiOfiai and tvtttoito 
to rvTrrofxai. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr., and about the opt. forms Kf/cr^ro, 
IJLffjivkqjTo, see the list of Anomalous Verbs. 

1 But it must not be supposed on that account that the 3 fut. is formed from the 
1 fut. of the middle voice with the redupl. ; for 1 do not know whether the above 
TtTpdipoixai occurs any where, but jSefSXtjaofjiai, KiKXijGoiiai, which actually occur, 
clearly confine us to the loerf (See the Anom. /3aXXw, KaXeu).) 



VERBS. 153 

3. The aoT. l,pass. annexes 6r}v to the characteristic of the 
verb. It follows of course from § 20^ that when the charac- 
teristic of a verb is a labialis or palatina, it is changed into 
an aspirata; for instance, 

AetTrw, ajuidpoj, — eXei^^rjVj r}iu£i(p9r}v, 

Xtyo), ttXekw, — eXixOriv, eirXixOriv, 

TVTrrii)) (TYIIQ,) — erv^Oriv, 

TCKTCTd), (TAFQ,) — - lTa)(9nv, 

When the characteristic of the verb is a Ungual letter, it is 
changed into (t, according to § 24, 2 ; for instance, 
TreiOijj {p^vf. TriTTHdfxai,) — lTTHaQr]v, 
KOfxiZii) {perf. KeKOiJLKJiuai,) — kKO/LiLaOriv* 
When the characteristic is a vowel, the termination 6r]v is 
(like juai in the perf. pass.) annexed to the vowel of the fut,; 
for instance, 

TTOiiio {TTOirjaw, Trsiroh^fJiaij) — liroirjOriv, 
Tifxaio {rifxriatx), T£Tifxr]}xaL,) — IrifirjOrjv, 
(ptjpau) (^wpafTw, 7r£0a>jOajLta(,) — l(j)(i)pa9r}v. 

3. With regard to other changes the ao7\ 1. pass, chiefly 
follows the perf. pass., taking cr in the same cases; for in- 
stance, 

reXid) {rErD^Eajuiai,) — eTe\l<jOi]v, 
and mostly changing the vowel of the preceding syllable in 
the same way as the perf. pass, ; for instance, 
TEv^d) (rirvyixaL) — Itv^Q^v, 

Obs. 1. A few verbs, which have a vowel for their characteristic, take the a in the 
aor. 1. pass, without having it in the perf. pass.; for instance, ttouw, rrsTravfiai, 
aor. 1. kiravOriv and eTzavaOrjv, jjivdo^ai, /xsijivrjixai, BfivrjffOriv : see also the Anom. 
TTvect), XP^^^D Treravwuai. That kaojQrjv, which comes from o-w^cd, has not the c, 
is owing to this verb having a double form. See the list of Anomalous Verbs. 

Obs. 2, See about the verbs in sw, which have t] in the per/, pass, and 6 again in 
the aor. l.^xtss. § 95. Obs. 4. 

06s. 3. Those which, without being verbs in X, [x, v, p, change their s into a in the 
peif. pass. (§ 98. Obs. 3.) retain their £ here : orpfi^w, (lorpaju/tat,) kfXTpscpOrjv, rpsTTw 
kTps<j)6r]v, Tpscpoj Wps^Orjv. But the lonians and Dorians have sTpd(pOriv, eaTpd(p9r]p. 

4. The aor. 2. pass, annexes rjv to the pure characteristic of 
the verb, and follows the rules given for the formation of the 
aor. 2. act. Hence we need only form that tense, whether it be 
in use or not, and change ov into riv ; for instance, 

TVTTTW, ervirov, — lTvwr}Vy 
Tfjiiro), erpaiTov, — erpaTrrjv. 

Obs. 4. The aor. 2. 2^<^ss. is after all nothing but a softer form of the aor. 1. 
Hence it commonly exists along with the aor. 1., but chiefly in primitive verbs only ; 



154 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

and in most verbs, which make their aor. 1. in xOrjv and 00?;v, it is preferred, tliis 
aor. 1. being used only by poets, when they want a long syllable, or by tragic 
writers, who prefer full and antiquated forms. Yet even in prose both were used 
indifferently, and the choice was probably determined by euphony. 

Obs. 5. Though the formation of the aor. 2. pass, agrees so perfectly with that of 
the ao7\ 2. act. that it follows the latter in grammar, it is yet absolutely independent 
of it; for in almost all the verbs which have the aor. 2. pass., the aor. 2. act. is not 
in use, as in UXdirrjv, from kXettto), kKpv(3r]v, eTVTrrjv, i^\d^r]v, lppi<priv, from 
KpvTTTO), TVTTTb), (SXcLTTTu), piTTrw, lrpd(pr]v from rpe^oj. Only the verb rpsTToj 
prefers the aor. 2, as it is stated above, in both the act. and the pass. 

Obs. 6. As there is no such interchange in the pass, as in the act. between the 
aor. 2. and the imperf., some verbs which, according to § 96, 3, cannot form an 
aor. 2. act., form an aor. 2. pass. It may in such a case be made after the imperf. 
instead of the aor. 2. act. ; only the rule that the long vowel becomes short in the 
aor. 2. holds out here also, for instance, 

ypd<p(t), {imperf. iypa(j)ov,) — kypdcprjv, 
rpt/3w, {imperf. Irpl^ov,) — lrpij3r}v, (i.) 

Obs. 7- On that account some verbs, of which the radical vowel is e, form an aor. 
2. pass, without changing the s into a : for instance, (pXsyu) — l^Xsyrjv, and (BXsttoj 
and Xsyii) (see the Anom.). See also about the unchanged long vowel in lirXfjyijv 
the Anom. TvXriaaw. 

Obs. 8, The verb ^uxw commonly takes a y in the aor. 2. pass, kxpuyrjv. See 
Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. 

Obs. 9. The characteristic ^, 0, r, does not take place in the aor. 2. pass., and 
instances with a vowel before the termination are hardly to be met with, except 
tKarjv from ku'ioj, and these three kddrjv, ippvrjv, s(pvr]v, (see the Anom. AA, p'scj, 
^vit),) which have the signification of the act. The rest of the verbs in w purum 
and contractum, and those in ^a», Ou), and ^w, have only the aor. l.pass. 

Obs. 10. There is a striking agreement of the two aor. pass., in point of form 
and conjugation, with the act. of the verbs in [ii. Compare the aor. pass, in the 
paradigm of tvtttoj with the imperf. and the collateral tnoods of the pres. tense of 
riOiJiii. 

§ 100. a, 

1. In the preceding doctrine on the formation of tenses, the 
regular verbs ending in w have been divided into five classes. 
We have treated of four of these in § 95 — 100. viz. 1. of verbs 
whose characteristic is a labial letter^ e<27. gr. Xeittw, tvtttw; 

2. of verbs whose characteristic is SLpalatina, ex. gr, Xtyw, tclggw, 

3. of verbs whose characteristic is a lingual letter^ ex. gr. ^^tj, 
KOfiiZb) ; 4. of verbs whose characteristic is a vowel, ex. gr. 
Tifiaio, (piXiu). To these classes a fifth must be added^ viz. of 
the verbs \ jul v p, or verba liquid a. 

2. As it is unavoidable that the learner should get sometimes 
embarrassed whilst following the numerous changes (§ 95 — 
100.) which the characteristic of the verb undergoes in the 
formation of tenses, we have deemed it useful to bring under 
one view all the changes of the four principal characteristics^ 



I 



VERBS. 



155 



in order to show their regularity and analogy, and in this way 
to assist the memory of the student. The following contains 
the changes of the characteristics in those tenses only which 
are enumerated in the second series. (§ 93.) The perf. and 
plusq. pass., being the most difficult tenses^ are marked with 
their inflections throughout. 



Characteristic, 


Charact. 




Charact. 1 


Charact 


labialis 




palatina. 


lingualis. 


vocalis. 


[3, TT, and 


7, K, X and 


8, r, Q and 




7rr. 




crcr or ^, 


^ or crcr, 






Activum. 




Fut. 1. 


t/zW ?W (T(i) 


G(i) 


Aor. 1. 


\pa Sa Ga 


Ga 


Perf. 1. 


(pa j(a Ka 


Ka 


Plusq. 1. 


(pEiv x^*^ '^^^^ 
Passivum. 


K£IV 


Perf. 


fi^ai 


jfiat 


fiai 


flat 




xfjm 


^at 


era I 


Gat 




TTTai 


KTai 


GTai 


rai 




fif^i^Qov 


jfiaOov 


(Tjuedov 


fxaOov 




^6ov 


xOov 


(t9ov 


gOov 




(pOov 


x9ov 


(jOov 


gOov 




fifjLtda 


jlueOa 


afiida 


jijieOa 




0^£ 


xee 


(jOs 


gOe 




— 


— • 


— 


vrai 


Plusq. 


filinv 


y^riv 


Gfiriv 


finv 




xfjo 


So 


GO 


GO 




TTTO 


KTO 


GTO 


TO 




lUjueOov 


jjueOov 


GfliOoV 


jueOov 




(pOov 


xOov 


gOov 


gOov 




^Orjv 


X0r]v 


G6r}v 


GOr]v 




lUjueOa 


yH^da 


G/uaOa 


jueOa 




(p9e 


X^£ 


gOe 


gOe 




— 


— 


— 


VTO 


Fut. 3. 


ipofjiat E,ojuiai GOjuat 


GOfiai 


Aor. 1. 


(pdr]v xOriv (jOriv 


Qnv 


Fut. 1. 


(pOr^dOjULai xdr]<joiiai (j6y](T0juai 
Medium. 


OfiGOidai 


Fut. 1. 


ipojuai ^ofxat GOjuai 


GOfiai 


Aor, 1. 


^ojurji 


I 


lafxr]v 


( 


TUfxriv 


GCLfXriV 



156 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§ 101. — Verbs in X, fx, v, p. 

1. The verbs of which the characteristic is one of the letters 
Aj ju, V, p5 deviate so much in the formation of their tenses^ that 
it is necessary to bring them under a particular point of view. 

2. All these verbs are generally without the fut. 1. or fut. 
in <T(o, but they always have the fut. 2. (§ 95. 7, 8.) Thus 

v^fjiii), fut. Ion. vejuitj, commonly vefjiio, 
filvw, jufv£w, commonly /xevw, 

of which the conjugation, ve/iw, acj a, oviuev, are, ouo-iv, med. 

ovjiiai, H, etrai, &c. may be seen in the paradigm of ayyiXXu), 

and be compared vrith the pres. of the ve7'ba contracta in iw, 

§105. 

3. If the syllable, which precedes the termination, be long in 
the pres., it is always made short in this fut. without any excep- 
tion ; for instance, 

\paX\(jJ, crrfXXw, F. ipaXCJ, (TTekuj, 

KjOivw, ajuLVVb)} KpTvw, a/ULVVlO. 

For this purpose the diphthong at is converted into a, and ei 

into £, for instance, 

(Taipw, KTEivcj, F. crapuJi ktsvuJ.^ 

Obs, 1. The Ionic forms, ayysXXw, fut. dyyfXsw, KQivkdj, KTsvko), (pavscj from 

<paiv<o, ttXvvsoj from ttXvvu), &c. pi. sofxsv, and so on, are now easily accounted for, 

as well as the Doric verbs with the contraction so — sv : for instance, (Ba\tvixevj 

paXevnai (§ 95. Obs. 17). See about the forms in (tw, Obs. 3. 

4. These verbs also form the aor. 1. without o-, merely in a. 
They retain the characteristic as it is in the fut., but make the 
syllable before the termination long again ; yet independently 
of the pres., for either they barely lengthen the vowel of the 
future, ex. gr. 

TiXXwy {rtXio,) — tTiXay 

Kpivu), (/CjOtvoj) — tKptvay 

a/uLvvto, {a/uLvvw) — i'lfxvva, 
or they commonly change the a of the fut. into ei, and a into 
for instance, 

juivu), (ttAXw, rdvio, 

{fXEVOJ, GTeXoJ, TEVlij,) iflBlVa, EOTCtXa, STUVa, 

' Other verbs requiring the short vowel, as those in p, v, w, X/xw, c/iw, or with 
the vowels rj, ov, and the like, do not occur at all in common language ; and the 
old poetical verbs, of which we have the forms, e-rrirvov, Ospfiero, and the like, are 
defective ; similar ones in the common language, ddicvb), rsixvu, Kcifivb), (SovKofiaif 
are anomalous. 



VERBS, 157 

xpdXXu), (paivb), 

(^aXw, (pavio,) — exprika, ^(priva. 
Several verbs^ however^ having at in the pres., take a in the 
ao7\ 1.; for instance, 

TTEpaivM, TTEoavu), — eTTEpnva, inf. irepavaiy 

TTialvtjj TTLavw, — ETTiava, inf. irLavm. 
Obs. 2. The a is taken by the verbs in -paivoi and -la'ivca, ex, gr. tixppavai, 
fxapavai, — Triaivu), TTiavai, except nrprivai and fjurjvai. Most of the others in 
aiv(x) and aipio are always found witli t] in the Attic writers, ex. gr. (Tr][j.aivo) 
cr]}j.rivai, xaXeTrrjvai, XvfirjvacrOaL, &c. — sxOaipo) sxOiipai — KaOrjpai, &c., excepting? 
however, KoiXavai, Xsvicavai, TreTrdvai, Kipdavai, bpyavai, iaxvavai. Later writers, 
or what are called KOivoi, (see § 1,9.) make also many other verbs with a, (as 
ar][xaiv(i), niaivoj, ix^'^'^Q^) &c.) and the Dorians of course do this throughout, whilst 
the lonians again have almost everywhere their tj. — Verbs beginning with a, alpio^ 
{to 7'aise,) and uXXofxai, (to leap,) have a, which is changed into r] in the indie, only 
because of the augment : ijpa, dpai, dpag, &c. riXdiii]v, aXa^Oai, &C.2 

Obs. 3. The oldest language and the ^olian dialect also made the fut. and the 
aoi\ 1. of these verbs with a : Homer, tKipaa, Theocr. iTepaa, from Ksipoj, rsipoj, 
and this formation alone continued to be used in common language with respect to 
some verbs, like KeXXcj, (/ land,) iicsXcra, ipvpoi, (/ knead,) (pvpcru). See also the 
Anom. dpapicTKU), Kvpscu, opvvixi. 

5. The aor, 2. retains the vowel exactly as it is in the fut.; 
for instance, 

[5dXX(i}j {(3a\w,) — I'/BaXoVj 

(paivtt), (0avw,) — aor. 2. pass. k(l)dvriv, 

k\lv(x), (kXTvw,) — aor. 2. pass. eKXivrjv, (i,) 

except that in dissyllabic verbs the £ of the fut. is changed 

into a. See below, 8. 

Obs. 4. The aor-. 2. act. is used in very few of these verbs, and, where both occur, 
is more poetical : thus SKravov occurs more rarely than eKreiva ^. But in the jxiss. 
the aor, 1., whenever it retains the consonant before the 9, is generally peculiar to 
the Poets (compare § 100. 06s. 4). It is the aor. 2. which is most in use, ex. gr. 
(paivoj l(pdvr]v, <jtsXXu) iardXriv, (T(pdXX(i) t(T(pdXr}v, Treipb) eTrdpijv. — Yet alpuj and 
all polysyllables have merely the aor, 1. pass, excepting ayyiWw, which has 
T^yysXOrjv and rjyykXr]v. 

6. The perf. 2. is completely comprised in the rules given 
above in § 97. 3, 4 : hence, 

OaXkd), — riQrika^ 
(paivw, — 7ri(pr}va. 

2 The learner must here be put on his guard against two errors : 1. nothing is 
more common than to find jjpa, apai, e/idyva, &c. with the iota subscriptum, which is 
to be condemned for the same reasons as above with regard to i\\eperf. 2. (see 
§ 97) 4. the Note); 2, in editions, which on the whole may be considered as good, 
the accentuation often is still Tnirdvai, <rr][xdvai, and the like ; its incori'ectness, 
however, is sufficiently obvious from what we have observed here and in § 11. 

2 The case is the same with dyyeXXw, of which the aor, 2. act. is even questioned: 
it is only required that an i or X be omitted by the transcribers to produce it. 
See in Buttm. Complete Ch'. Gr. the list of Verbs. 



158 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

There is this peculiarity, that the diphthong ei, having arisen 
in these verbs not from the radical vowel i, but from e, as ap- 
pears from the fut., is not changed into oi, in the perf. 2. but 
merely into o (§ 97, 4. c) ; for instance, 

KTdvii), {ktevCj,) — tKrova, 

(pOeipoj, {(l)6ipu),) — t(^Bopa. 

7. Thej^e//. 1., the, perf. pass., and the aor» 1. pass., also fol- 
low the general rules ; they annex the terminations ku, fiai See, 
6r]v, to the characteristic, and retain the changes of the fut.; 
for instance, 

CT^aXXit), ((T^aXw,) — efJ(f)a\Ka, tac^aXfiai, 

<j)aiv(x), {(fyavCj,) — Tri<payKa, e(f)av9r}v, - 

a'/pw, (apw,) — ripKa, r\piJiaL,part. r^pjULevog, 7]pdr]v,part, apOtig* 

The perf. pass. (§ 98, 2.) also rejects the o- of the terminations 

aOai, aOe, &c. ; for instance, 

iacpaXjuai, 2 pi. lE(7(paX6e, 

(l)vpii), Tricpvpfxai, inf. Tre^vpQai, 
It must, however, be recollected that the verbs in p.Lo (rl/xw) 
and fjivw {refjLvw, fut. tejuw,) do not form their tenses in the 
above manner. See Obs. 9. 

8. When the fut. has an e, the dissyllables take a in its 
stead in most of those tenses which are derived from the root 
of the fut. (with the exception of the aor. 1. act. and med., and 
perf and plusq. 2.) viz. in the 

aor. 2., perf. 1., perf. pass, and aor. \. pass., and in those 
tenses which are derived from them, ex. gr, o-rtAXw, 
((xreXw,) forms 
aor. 2. act. taraXov — laTokriv, GraXriaofjiai, toraXojurjv, 
perf. 1. ecTTaXKa, • — ^(ttclXkeiv, 

perf pass. HaraXjuai, — laTaXfiriv, 
aor. \. pass. l<jTa\6rjv — araXOrjaofAai, 
The same in Tretpio, {irEptj,) 

perf. 1. TT^irapKa, perf pass. Treirap/jLai, aor. 2. pass, lirapriv 
KTfivw, {kt£vu),) — aor. 2. EKravov. (See below, 9.) 
But the polysyllables retain the e unchanged in all these 
tenses, for instance of ayjeXXd), (ayytXio,) 

aor. 2. act. riyyeXov, pass. iiyyi\r}v,perf. 1. riyyeXKa, 
perf pass, i^yy eXjuiai, aor. i. pass. y]yy i\dr\v. 



Obs. 5. The £ is likewise retained by the dissyllables beginning with e, eeXfiai, 
tepfiai, from the Anom. t'iXio, dpcj. 






VERBS. 159 

9. The following verbs in /vw, dvu), vvcj, 

Kpivii), kXivw, rdvw, kthvu), ttXvvoj, 

reject the v in the per/. 1., perf. and aor. 1. pass., and their 

derivatives, and take the short vowel of the fut., but those in 

Hvb) still change the e into a according to the preceding rule, 

KQLVli), {kplv(jJ}) — KiKpLKa, KiKpifiai, kKpWr]v, 

TEivoj, (revw,) — riraKa, rirafiai, lTa6r}v^, 

ttXvvw* {ttXvvCj,) — TTtTrXu/ca, iviirXviim, kirXvOr^v. 

Obs. 6. But the v of the aor. 1. pass, is often retained in verses for the sake of 
position ; ex. gr. KvavQuQ, diuKpivOdg, IkXivOi], kirXvvBri. Later writers have it 
also in prose. 

Obs. 7. The retaining of the v is attended with some difficulty in the perf, pass. ; 
yet it is retained unchanged 

a.) in the 2 sing., where it even remains before a, for instance, cpaivtx) — 

Tvk^avcrai, 
b.) in the terminations beginning with cd, in which, however, (according to 
Text 7.) the a gives way to the v ; ex. gr., inf. 7re(pdv9ai, rpaxvvo), inf. 
TerpaxivQai, 
e.) in the 3 sing. ; ex. gr. Trs^avrai, {lie appeared,) Trapw^vvrai {lie was exaspe- 
rated). 
Whether the ^pl. was formed in this manner, {ex. gr. KSKpavrai, Eurip. Hipp. 
1255. of Kpaivb), from which of course one v has been dropped, compare 
the following Obs.) is questionable. 
Obs. 8. Three things are to be attended to with regard to the v before termina- 
tions beginning with jx : 

a.) the V regularly becomes [i, — ex. gr. 

y(7xvp.[iai, Homer II. a. 180. from aiaxvvoi, 
k^TjpafjiiJLai, Athen. 3. p. 80. d. fi'om ^rjpaivoj, 
b.) (7 is most commonly substituted for the v, ex. gr. (paivo), [xiaivcj, {^avat) 

jjiiavu),) — Tvktpaajxai, jxtjxiaGfxai, 
c.) when the v is rejected altogether, which is very rare, the vowel remains 
long ; ex. gr. TtrgaxvukvoQ, Aristot. H. A. 4, 9. 
The two last ways may also be explained as owing to the terminations alvu) and 
vvix) having been originally lengthened from dw and vw^. 

Obs. 9. The regular formation of the p)erf. pass, and perf act. (in jKa) is very 
rai-e with verbs in vb) ; for these verbs are mostly lengthened forms of the present 
tense, and therefore form those tenses from other themes, and according to other 
rules. About the few verbs in juw, which, as well as yavio, take, for euphony's sake, 
(§ 99, 2.) the forms of sw, {kvsjjiriQtjv, ixefikvijKa,) see the Anom. § ] 10, 11. 

§ 102. — Verbal Adjectives in riog and rog. 
1. After having stated the formation of the tenses, we pass 
to the formation of the two kinds of verbal adjectives in riog 

* Compare also the Anom. $ENQ, Trscpafiai. There is no occasion to recur to 
the old themes TAQ, KTAQ, 4>AQ. 

" Even the per/'. 1. act. fluctuates between the two formations, and as it was sel- 
dom wanted, (§ 88. a. Obs. 5.) the Greek writers probably consulted their ear for 
the most part of time. We meet, but not in the old writers, with 7r's<payKa, {Xiixi- 
ayKu, and ejSejSpaSvicei. See also the Anom. Kspdaivoj. 



160 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



and Tog, which in their signification and use approximate to 
i\\Q participles. (See Obs. 2.) 

2. Both kinds constantly have the accent on the termina- 
tion annexed immediately to the characteristic of the verb ; 
this undergoes the changes prescribed by the general rules, 
and in several instances the vowel which precedes the termina- 
tion is likewise changed. These changes agree in every re- 
spect with those of the aor. I.pass.^ only that where the aor. 
has (j)9, x9, the verbals take ttt, kt. They therefore may always 
be compared with the 3 pers. sing, of the perf. pass., which also 
has a r. But this 3 pers. deviates in several verbs from the aor, 
1. and from these verbals, with regard^o the radical syllable. 

3. Verbals are formed thus : 



irXiKio, {TriirX^KTaiy l7r\e)(^9r}v,) 



Xeyijjy 
ypd(l)U), 



TrXeKriog, 

XsKTog, 
jpaTTTog, 

(TTpeTTTOg, 

(^{jj^ariog^ 

(piXr}TEog, 

alpsTog, 

TTavtjriog, 

aToXriog, 

rariog, 

X^Tog, 

irvevdTog. 



{yiypaTTTai, eypcKfjOrfv,) 

^WjOaw, {7rE(f)MpaTai, l(p(jt)pa6r]V,) 

(piXid), {iTEcpiXriTaij e(j)iXi)6r]v,) 

mpi(jj, {ypr]Taif ypWr^v,) 

TravLo, {iTETravTaii liravaOrjVy) 

(TTeXXoj, (taTaXraL, idraXOriv,) 

TsivM, {rirarai^ eTaOr]v,) 

Xlw, (/clx^raf, exvOrtv,) 

irvtoj, {ireirvvTai, iTrvevaOriv,) 

Ohs. 1. The o- is sometimes dropped before the termination of several verbals in 
bg in the Ionic dialect, and by the old Attic writers, especially in compounds like 
dSdfjiaTog, TrdyKXavrog, and poets even allowed themselves to say, Qavfiarbg fi'om 
Oavfid^cj. 

Obs. 2. See in the Syntax, § 134, 8. the peculiarities in the use and import of 
these verbal adj. ; ex.gr. (rrpsTrTog, twisted, and icJiich can be twisted, aTpsTrrsog, which 
must be twisted ; and the neut. (XTpsTrrkov corresponding to the Latin nertendum est. 

§ 103. — Verbum Barytonon. 

1. We are now going to give the conjugation of a barytone 
verb, [rvirrw,) to which we subjoin various examples, to show 
the difference of the use in some verbs, and lastly the conjuga- 
tion of one of the verbs in X, fx, v, p [ayyiXXuj). 

2. A barytone verb is (according to § 10, 2.) a verb in its 
natural form, in which the termination of the pres. always is 
unaccented ; in contradistinction to those verbs which contract 



VERBS. 161 

the two last syllables, and therefore take the circumflex. The 
latter are called verba contracta or perispomena ; they are par- 
ticularly stated in their proper place. 

Prefatory Remarks to the Paradigrna Tvtttijj. 

1. The verb tvittu), which we too select for di paradigm^ is not 
so improper for it as some suppose. Since it is necessary to 
show first the whole foundation of the Greek conjugation in 
one verbj there is scarcely one more convenient than tvtttlo to 
be hit on ; for it is only in a verb which has like this a perfect 
form in its pres. tense, that the exact nature of the aor. 2., as 
stated above, § 96, 2, can be fully explained. 

2. The learner must, however, be reminded that rvTrrcj is 
here a bare paradigm, that is to say, an example in which a 
complete view is given of all the tenses which may occur in 
verbs of this kind, though neither Tvirrw, nor any single verb, 
has all the tenses, or employs all the tenses, which are set 
down here. See § 104. ^ 

3. But we have only stated in the paradigm those tenses 
which are warranted by the analogy of similar verbs, as aor. 2. 
act. and pe?'/. 2. The old grammars had also 

the fut. 2. act. and med. ; 
but as this belongs to the verbs m\ fi v p, we omit it here, and 
conjugate this future completely in the paradigm of those verbs 
(ayysXXw). 

4. To give a view of the whole, we annex a Table containing 
the first pers. of the flexible moods, the second per s. of the im- 
per., the infin., and the inasc. of the participle of all the tenses 
of the act., pass., and middle voices. And this Table is imme- 
diately follow^ed by the paradigm of tv-ktm conjugated once 
more at length. 

5. Observations on the accentuation of verbs, and peculi- 
arities of the different dialects, are given after all the para- 
digms. 

* These tenses of Tvirrb) are those which ai'e really in use. See below the list of 
Anomalous Verbs, to which rvTrroj also belongs on account of the Attic formation of 



M 



1G2 



A GREEK GRAMMAR, 



Verbum 



Acti- 





Indie. 


Conj. 


Pres. 


TVTTTWf 


rVTTTd), 


Imperf. 


hvTTTOVy 




Perf. J. 


TETVCpa, 


TeTV(j)(i), 


Plusq, 1. 


heTV(j)Eiv, 




Perf. 2. 


TtTvira, 


TSTVTTU), 


Plusq. 2. ■ 


IrervTreiv, 




Fut. 1. 


TVlpW, 


-^ 


Aor. 1. 


trvipa, 


rv\L(jj, 


Fut. 2. 


(See in the paradigm ayytXXa),) 


Aor. 2. 


truTToy, j Tvirw, 


Passi- 


Pres. 


TVTTTOfiai, 


TVWTiOfXaiy 


Imperf 


eTVTTTOHjiriVy 




Perf 


Tirvfifiai, 


^ 


Plusq. 


heTVfifjLrjv, 




Fut. 1. 


TV(l)9r}(70fxai, 


— 


Aor. 1. 


ETV^OrjV, 


TV(^QCo, 


Fut. 2. 


TVlTl^dOfXai, 


— 


Aor. 2. 


hviniv, 


rUTTW, 


Fut. 3. 


TeTvipojuLat, 


— 


Med- 


For the Pres., Imj^ 


lerf, Perf, and Plusq., see the Pass. Voice, 


Fut. 1. 


rvipo/uiai, 


— 


Aor. 1. 


arvipaiurjv, 


Tvd/wtxm, 


Fut. 2. 


(See in the paradigm ayjiXXu),) 


Aor. 2. 


lrv7r6jiir}Vf | Tviruifiai, 



This conj. and opt. can be formed only in very few verbs. See § 98. Ohs. 9. — 

the vei-b tlai ; TSTVjJtfJLkvog, {rj, ov,) 



VERBS. 



163 



BarytoxoXj tvtttqj. 



vum. 



Opt. 


Imper. 


Infin. 


Part. 


TVTTTOl/UL, 


TVTTTE, 


TVTTTHV, 


TVTTTWV, 


TervcfiOLHL, 


rirvcpe, 


TSTVCpSVai, 


TETVCplibg, 


TSTVuOLjUL, 


TarvTre, 


TETvirivaiy 


TETVTTUjg, 


TV\l^Olflt, 
TV\paL[Jll, 


TV^pOV^ 


TVXpUV, 

Tvipat, 


TV'ip(jt)V, 

Tvxl^ag, 


TVirOllLU, 


Tvire, 


rvTreTv, 


TVTTWV. 


vum. 


rv—Toifir^v, 


Tv-rov, 


rvTrrecrOai, 


rvTrrojuevog, 


* 


rirVil^o, 


TeTV(j)Oai, 


TErvufxivog, 


TV(p9ri(T0Liuriv, 
TV<p6driv, 


TVCpOr^Tl, 


TV(p6r)(T£a9ai, 
TV(pdr}vai, 


Tv(})0ri(T6fXEVog, 
TvipOelg^ 


TV7rr}(TOllU7IV, 
TV7r£Lr]V, 


TV7Tr}6L, 


rvTTiivat, 


TVirriaofjievog, 

TVTTEh', 


TeTV\pOlflT]V, 


— 


TETvipeadai, 


T£TV\p6lil£V0g. 


ium. 


TV^alju-nv, 


rvxl^ai, 


TvipEcrOai, 
TV'^aadaif 


rvxpo/uLEvog, 
Tv^aiuLtvog, 


Tviroifiy]v, 


TVTTOV, 


TVTriaOai, 


TViTOfievog. 



In most instances they are supplied by a cii'cumlocution with the conj. and ojyt. of 
u), and e'ltjv. See § 108. IV. 



M 2 



164 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



Acti- 



1 Indie. 


Conj. 


Pres. Sing. 


TVTTTw, I strike. 


TVTTTio, {that) I may 
strike, 




TVTTTUQ, thou strikest. 


TvirrriQ, 




TVTTTEi, he, she, it, strikes. 


Tv-rrrri, 


Dual, 


— — 


— — 




TVTTTeTov, you two strike. 


TVTTTTjrOV, 




TVTTTETov, they both strike. 


TVTTTriTOV, 


Plur. 


TvirrofxEv, we strike, 


TVimolUEV, 




TVTTTETs, you Strike, 


TVTTTYITE, 




TVTrTov(ji{v), they strike. 


TVWTW(n{v), 


Imperf. Sing. hv-n-Tov, Dual, ^~ Plur. Itvtttoiulev, 


eTVTTTeg, hvTrrerov, IrvwreTe, 


tTVTTre(v), fruTTrarrjv, irvirrov, 


Perf. 1. Sing. 


TlTV(j)a, I have struck, &c. 
TiTV(l)ag, 

tetv(J)e{v), 


TETixptx), like the pres. 


Dual, 


TETV(j)aTOV, 

TETv^arov, 




Plur. 


TETVCpajULEV, 
TETV(j)aTE, 

TErv(l)aGi(v), 




Plusq. Sing. Itetv(I>uv, Dual, — Plur. h£TV(l)£ijuev, 


tTETVCpeig, tTtTV(l)eLTOV, IriTlXpElTe, 


ItETV^H, ETETV<j)dTriV, kT£TV(f)eL(TaV 


Perf. 2. Ttrvira, through all the moods like the perf . 1. 


Plusq. 2. hsTvireiv, like the plusq. 1. 


Fut. 1. Sing. 


Tvxpu), I shall or will strike, 
like the pres. 


conj. is wanting. 


Aor. 1. Sing. 


ETvxpa, I struck, or / have 


TVXptt), 




ETvipag, [struck, &c. 


like the pres. 




Erv\PE{v), 




Dual, 


ETVxparov, 

ETVlpaTtJV, 




Plur. 


ETV^pajUEV, 
ETVIpaTE, 

ETvxjjav, 




Aor. 2. 


ETVTTOV, 


rvirw, 




like the imperf. 


like the 



See below, 



VERBS. 



165 



vum. 



Opt. 



TviTToifiL, T might str 
were I to strike, 

TVTTTOig, 



ike. 



TVTTTOITOV, 
TV-KTOLT^Vy 
rVTrTOljULEV, 

TvirroiTE, 
TvirroLSv, 



Imper. 



Infin. 



TVTTTOVCra, 



TVTTTHV 

to strike, 
TviTTe, strike, 
ruTrrlrw, let him, her, 
— — [it stynke, 
TVTTTerov, strike ye [both), [strike 
TVTrririjjv, they [both) may or must 



Part. 



TVTTTOV, 

striking, 
gen. tvtttovtoq 



TvirreTEi strike ye, [or must strike, 
rvTrrerioaav or rvirrovTCJv, they may 



} 



I did strike, thou didst strike, &c. 



TETVipOlllL^ 

like the pres. 



like the pres, 



TETVpivai, TSTVCpcbg, 

TtTV(pvla, 



TtTv^og, 

gen. TETV(l)6Tog. 



> I had struck, &c. 




or eaav, ) 






rvxl^oijuii, 


imper. is 


TV\p£lV, 


TVxf^LJV, 


like the pres. 


wanting. 




like the pres. 


Tv^paiim 




rvxpai. 


Tvipag, 


Tvipaig or Tv\fjuaQ *, 


Tv^ov, strike. 




Tv\pa<Ta, 


Tv^pat or Tv^peie{v), * 


rv\paT(i), 




Tv^pav, 


— — 






gen. Tv\pavTog. 


TVlpatTOV, 


rv^arov, 






TVlpaiTTJV, 


TVipaTljJV, 






Tvipaifxev, 








rv-ipaiTE, 


TVXpaTS, 






TvipaLEv or Tv\p£iav, 


TDi^ariocrav or tv^clvtwv 




TVTTOlfll, 


TVTTE, 


Tvirdv, 


TVTTwv, ovaa. 


pres. 


like the jore5. 




ov,gen. ovtoq. 



Obs. II. 4. 



166 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



Passivum 





Indie. 


Conj. 


Pres. Sing. 


TVTTTOHiai, 


TVTTTWIJLai, 




TviTTTj, or £1, (see below, Obs. 


TVTTTr}, 




TVTTTtTai, [TIL 3.) 


rvTTTrirm, 


Bual, 


rVTTTOfizQoV, 


tvtttu>IUe9ov, 




TVTTTedOoV, 


Ti>7rTr](j9ov, 




tvtttegQov, 


TV7rTr](j9ov, 


Plur. 


TVTTTOfXiOa, 


TV7rTWfJLE9a, 




TVTTT^aOE, 


TVTrTr](j9E, 




TVTTTOVrai, 


TVKTWVraL, 


Imperf. Sing, hvirroiijiriv, Dual, etvtttoiul^Oov, 


Plur. ETV7rT6lilE9a, 


IrvTTTOv, ^rvTTTEcrOov, 


ErVTTTE(j9E, 


trvTTTEro, IrvTTTEaQriv, 


ETVTTTOVTO, 


Perf. Sing. 


rirvjuiuai, 

TETVlpai, 


See the Note to 




TETVTTTai, 


\ 


Dual, 


TETVfXfJLEdoV, 

TiTV(f)OoV, 

TtTV(p6oV, 




Plur. 


TETVjU/UiEOa, 

3 pers. wanting, in its stead 
TErvjipLEVoi [ai) EiaXv, 




Plusq. Sing. hsTviuinriv, Dual, h^rviifi^Qov, 


Plur. lTErvfXfxE9a, 


ETtTVT^O.) lTirV(l)9oV, 


etetv^9e. 


tTirVTTTO^ tTET{)(pOr}V, 


Z pers. wanting. 


Fut. 


rv^Q{]aop.ai, 

rv(l>6{](Trf, or £<, 

and so on like the pres. 


conj. is wanting. 


Aor. 1. Sing. 


ETV(pOrtV, 


rv^9ix>. 




IrvcpBng, 


rv(j)9yg, 




iTxxpdr], 


TV(p9ij, 


Dual, 


— — 


— — 




lrv(pdr\TOv, 


rv(p9r\TOV, 




iTVfpOijTYjV, 


TV(j)9r}TOV, 


Plur. 


ETV(p9rilUlEV, 


TV(J)9mjUEV, 




ETVfOriTE, 


rv(p9r]TE, 




ETV(p9r}(Tav, 


TV(l>9iofn{v), 


Fat. 2, TvirrtGoidai, through all the mooc 


is Hke the Fut. 1. 


Aor. 2. hvTTTjv, through all the mooc 


!s like the Aor. 1. 


Fut. 3. TETvipofiai, through all the mooo 


(s hke the Fut. 1. 



* The abbreviated form is most generally employed in 



VERBS, 



167 



« [to be struck). 








Opt. 


Imper. 


Infin. 


Part. 


TV1TToifXr\V, 




TV7rTsa9aiy 


TVTTTOIUEVOg, 


rVTTTOLO, 


TVTTTOV, 




T], OV. 


TvirroLTo, 


TVTTTia9b)j 






rvTrroijueOov, 
tvtttokjOov, 


rv7CT£a9ov, 






TV7rTOi(j9r}v, 


TV7rTe(j9iov, 






TV7rTOllULt9a, 
TV7rTOl(T9£, 


rv7rr6(70£, 






TVITTOIVTO, 


TVTTria9ii}<7av 








or rvTrT£(T9(i)v, 






the Table, p. 162. 




TtTV(p9aL, 


TErvfifiivog, 




TeTV(j)9(i), 




Tji OV. 




T£TV(p9oV, 
T£TV(f)9(i)V, 








TiTV(l)9£, 
TSTV(j)9w(jaV 
or T£rV(f)9(i)V, 






in its stead Tervfifxivoi ( 


at) Tjcrav. 






TV(})9i](J0ijur}v, 

TV(p9ri(TOlO, 

and so on like the pres. 


imper. is 
wanting. 


TV(l)9{](T£a9ai, 


TV(p9ri(76iiavog 
ri, OV. 


TV(})9dY]V, 

TV(p9eir]Q, 


rv(j)9t]Ti, 


TV(j)9rivaL, 


TV(p9£\g, 
TV(t)9£L<Ta, 


TV (1)9 eh], 


TV(j)9{]TW<) 




Tv^9ev, 


TV(p9ur\T0v, 


TV(p9rirov, 




gen. 
TV(^9ivroQ. 


TV(p9eir}Tr)Vf 

TV(f>9ur]fX£Vy TV(p9aLlbl£V} 

TV(p9eir}T£, TV(p9dTe, 


TV(p9{]Tli)V, 

TV(f)9r]TE, 
TV(p9{]T(jJ(jaV, 







the _^rsf and second jjej's., and almost always iii the thh-d. 



168 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Med- 

[To strike 
The pres. and imperf., perf. and 





Indie. 




Conj. 


Fut. 1. 


TV\pOfJiaL, 

like the j^re^. 




wanting. 


Aor. 1. Sing. 


sru^a/zrjv. 




TV1pli)liaL, 




tri/^oj, 




Tvipy, 




sril^aro, 




TVlprjTUl, 


Dual, 


Irv^ajiieOov, 




TV\pC0fAt9oV, 




Irv^aaOoVi 




TviprjcrOov, 




hvxjjdaOijv, 




TvipTjaOov, 


Plur. 


IrvipaiueOa, 




TVlpMfjlEOa, 




ervil^aaOe, 




TV\pr]T6£, 




ervxpavTO, 




rvTptJVTaiy 


Aor. 2. Sing. 


hvTTOiuriv, 




rvTrwjum, 




like the imperf. pass. 


these two moods as 


Dual, 








Plur. 








Verbal Adjectives, (§ 






Declension 


At 


r. 1. C5c/. 


Aor. 2. act. 


Sing. 




Sing. 


N. Tvxpag, 


Tvipaaa, rvxpav, 


TVTTUJV, TTOucra, irbv. 


G. Tvipavrog, 


TV^aariQ, rv-ipavrog, 


TVTTOvTog, 7roi»(7r]C) irovrog, 


D. TVlpaVTL, 


TV\pa(Tr), TvipavTi, 


rvirovTi, TTOvarj, irovrii 


A. Tv\jjavTa, 


TV^aaav, rvipav, 


TVTTOvra, iroixrav, rrov, 


V. ri^^act 


Tvipa(ja, TV'ipav, 


TV7rwv,'[ TTOVcra, irov, 


Dual, 




Dual, 


N. TVTpavre, 


rv^aaa, Tv^avre, 


TVTTOVTE, TTOVaa, TTOVTE, 


G. TV^paVTOLV, 


Tvipaaaiv, rvpavTOiv, 


TVTTOVTOIV, irOVdCUV, TTOVTOIV) 


Plur. 




Plur. 


N. TvxpavT^g, 


Tvipaaai, Tvpavra, 


TVTT6vT£.g, wovaai, Trovra, 


G. rvxpavTwv, 


TV^afTOJV, TVpaVTWV, 


TVTTOVTljJV, TTOVaC)V, TTOVTIOV, 


D. Tvipaai, 


Tvxpaaaig, tviLckti, 


rvirovai, TTOvaaig, wovai, 


A. TVipavTaq, 


Tvipacfag, Tvipavra, 


TVTTOvTag, TTOvaag, ttovtu, 



* See Herod. 2. 40. 



VERBS. 

ium. 

one's self.) * 

plusq. are the same as in the pass. 




169 


Opt. 


Imper. 


Infin. \ Part. 1 


rvxl^oi/uriv, 
hke the pj^es. pass. 


wanting. 


TVTpeaOai, 


rvxpo/jLevog, 
rj, ov, 


rvifjaijuriv, 

TVXpaiTO, 

rvxpaijuLtOov, 
TvipaiaOoV} 

TVXpaiineOa, 
rvxpaiaOe, 

TV^aiVTO, 


rvipai, 
TVipdaOijt), 

Tv^paaQov, 
TvipaaOojv, 

TvipaaOe, 
TVipdaOujaav or 
rvxpdaOcov, 


TVxfjaaOai, 


TV^djXivog, 
Y], ov, 


rvTroifxr\v, 
the pres. pass. 


TVTTOl), 

TvireaOd), 

TvireaOov, 
rvTvidOiov, 

TviTEcrOe, 
TVTrlaOojcrav or 
TVTriaOiov, 


TviriaQai, 


Tv-rrojUivog, 
V, ov. 


102.) Tvirriog, rvTrrog. 


of the Participles. 

Perfl. act. 

Sing, 
reTvcpiog, (pvla, (pog, 
TETvcpoTog, (pviag, (poTog, 
TSTvcpoTi, (pviq, (port, 
TtTV(poTa, (pvTav, (pog, 
r£rii0(t>C)t (pvla, (}>og, 

Dual, 
Tervcpore, (pvia, (pore, 

TaTVCpOTOlV, (pViaiV, (pOTOlV, 

Plur. 

TETV(p6Teg, (pv7ai, (pora, 
rtTV(p6r(i)v, (pviwv, (porcov, 
T^TVcpocFL, (pviaig, (poai, 
TiTVcporag, (pviag, (pora, 


Aor. 1. pass. 
Sing. 

TVcpOng, Otiaa, Olv, 
TVipOlvTog, OEitrrjg, OivTog, 
TV(pOi:VTi, Oticry, OivTi, 
TV(p9evra, Oeicrav, 6lv, 
TvcpOeLg,^ Oeiaa, 6lv, 
Dual, 
TvcpOtvTE, Oeiaa, OtvTE, 

TV(p9ivT0lV, dtlGULV} OtVTOlV) 

Plur. 
TvcpOivTEg, duaai, Oivra, 

TV(pOivTlOV, OsiGiOV, OtVTUJV, 

TvcpOelai, Oeiaaig, Odai, 
TV(pOivTag, Oeiaag, Oivra. 



f See § 45, 1. 



170 



A GREEK GRAMMAR, 



EXAMPLES OF OTHER BARYTONE VERBS, AS THEY ARE IN USE. 



For an alphabetical list of verba barytona, partly for practice 
and partly with the particular use of each, see Appendix. 



Traidtvd) {to educate). Med. {to cause to be educated.) 
Activum, 



Pres. Ind. 


Conj. Opt. Imper. 


Trai^ivd), 


Trai^EVM Trai^ivoiiiiif Tra/^eue, 


naiSevsig, 


TTaidEvyg, irai^Evoig, TraidtviTU), &c. 


waiSwei, &c. 


TraiSEvrj, &c. TraiSevoi, &c. 




Infin. Part. 




irai^EveiV) TraiBsvijJv, 




iraiSevovGa, 




Tratd&vov. 



Imperf. 

liraidEvov, Eg, £{v), &c. 



Per/. Ind. 

TTETTaiSEVKa, 

ag, e{v), &c. 



Conj. Opt. Imper. 

TTETTaideVKLO, TTETTaidEVKOlflL, not iu USC^ 

Infin. Part. 

TrETraidevKEvai} TTETTaLdEVKwg, v7a, og, 



Plusq. 



Eig^ EL, Slc. 



Put. 

7rai^EV(j(xi, 


Opt. 
irai^EvaoijuiL, 


Infin. 

TTaLdEVdElV, 


Part. 
irai^EV(T(i)V) 


Aor. 

ETraidEVcra, 
ag, e{v), &C. 


Conj. Opt. Imper. 
TTaL^EvcHi), TraLOEvaaifjit, Trai^Evcrov, 
rjg^ y, &C. TraidEixjaLg \ TraidEvaarti), 
irai^Evam, ikc, Slc. 
Infin. Part. 
TraidEvaai, nai^Evaag, 
TraidEvaaoa, 
Trai^Evaav. 



* Tlie three forms, -rraidevating, ne, eiai^, are understood here of course, as well 
as in the i'uWowing jjaixidigms. 



VERBS. 



171 



Passivum. 



Pres. Ind. 


ConJ. 


Opt. 


Imper. 


7raidi:V0iuLai, 


Trai^svwibLai, 


Trai^Evoifir^v, 


wai^Evov, 


irai^tvij or el, 


iraicevr), 


Traidsvoio, 


TraLdEviadd), 


Trai^Everaif 


irat^evriTai, 


TraL^svoiTO, 


&c. 


&c. 


&c. 


&C. 






Infin. 




Part. 




TTai^evsaOai, Traidevofxevog-, 17, ov. 



Imperf. 



ETraicEvofiriv, ETraLCEvov, EiraicEVETO 



dEV( 



&C. 



Pe?/. Indie. 

TrEiraicEVjuaLi 
TTETrai^Evcrai, 
iTETrai^EVTaL, 



Diial^ 

TTETrmdEVjUEOoV, 

TTETraicEvaOov, 
TTETrai^evaOov, 



Plur. 
TTETrai^EVjUEOa, 

TTETTaidEVaOE, 
TTETTai^EVVTai, 



Conj. and Opt. are wanting. 

Imper. Infin. Part. 

TTETrai^Evao, TTETraidEixjOaii TrEiraiSEVjLiEvog, 

TTETraidEvcrOa), &C. 



Plusq. 



l^EVi 



ETTETraiCEVjULriV, 

ETTETrai^EVGO, 

ETTETTaideVTO, 



Dual, 

ETTETraidEVjUEOoV, 

ETTETTaiBEVcrOov^ 
ETTETraidEvaOrjv, 



Plur. 

ETTETraL^EVfJLEda, 

ETTETraidEVGOE, 

ETTETraiSEVVTOy 



Fat. Ind. Opt. Infin. Part. 

TraLCEuQ^GOjiaii 7raiEEvdriaoiiur]v^ 7rmdEvO{](7EG9ai^ naidEvOr^cfoiLLEvog, 



Aor. Ind. 
E7raidEv9r]v, 



Conj. Opt. Imper. 

TraidEvOu), TraidEv6Eir]v, 7rai^Ev6r]Ti, 
Infill. Part. 

Trai^EvOrivati Trai^EvOEig, 



Fut. 3. Ind. 



Opt. 



hifin. 



Part. 



TTETTai^EVGOfim,^ Trai^EV(joifir]v^ TTEiraidEVGEaOai^ TTEirai^EVGOfXEvoQ. 

Medium. 



Fut. Indie. 



Opt. 



Infin. 



Part. 



irai^EvrjOfiai, TraidEvaoljurjv, Trai^EvcFE&Oaii irai^EVcroiuiEvog, 
Aor. Ind. j Conj. Opt. Imper. 

ETrai^Evadjuriv, 1 7raL^EV(T(opaL, 7rciL^EV(jaiiir}v, TraidEvaai, 

y, r}Tai, &c. mo, atro, &c. TraidEvadaOd), &c. 
Infin. Pai't. 

TraiBEvrraaOai, Trai^EvcrdiuiEvog. 



rrw, (TaTO, 



&c. 



Verbal Adjectives, irailEvHog, TrmdEvrog. 



172 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Scj'w [to shake). Med, [to he agitated.) 

Activum. 

Pres. (T£iu)y conj. adw^ opt. auoLfxi, adoig, ddoi, &c. 

imper. (rai^, (reiirw, &c. infin. (rdeiv, 

part, atiwv, auovaa, craov, 
imperf. tauov^ perf. aiauKa^ plusq. eaeaeiKeiVffut. adcFU), 
aor. £(T£i(Taf conj. adau), opt. adGaifxi, adaaiQ^ adaaiy &C. 

imper, adaov, arw, &c. infin. Guaai^ 

part, (jdaag^ (jdaaGa, adaav. 

Passivum. 

Pres. (T£iofiai, imperf. fo-ffo^rjv, 

perf. aiauajum, dual, oreadaiieOoVy plur. (JEadafi^daf 
aiauGaiy (jiaEiaOov, (riaiKrOE, 

aiauGTaif aiauadov, ^ pers. wanting. 

conj. and opt. wanting, imper. aiau&o, GEadaQu), &c. 
infin. GEGdaQai, part, aiauan^voQ, 

plusq. la£ad(Tfxr\v, dual, lazadKTfx^Qov, plur. koreadcr^^Oa, 
Icfiauao, laiauadov, iaicreKrOe, 

laiauGTo, ^(TecTehOriv, 3 pers. wanting. 

fut. GHGdr]GOnaif aor. kadiaQ^v, fut. 3. G^adGOiiau 

Medium. 

Fut, GdGOfiai, aor. eaeiGcifirjv [imper. Gdaai). 
Verbal adjectives, Geiariog, aEiGTog. 



Adirw [to leave). Med. poetical. 

Activum. 

Pres. Xdwco, conj. XsiTno, opt. Xdiroijui, Xdiroig, Xdiroi^ &c. 

imper. Xdire, infin. Xdireiv, part. Xei7ru)V) 
imperf. cXefTrov, 

perf. (2.) XiXonray plusq. eXD^oitteiv, 
fut. XffYw, 

aor. (2.) tXiTTov, conj. Xiwu), opt. XlTroifii, imper. Xitte, 
infin. XnreXv, part. Xi7ru)v, ovGa, 6v. 



VERBS. 173 



Passivum, 



Pres. XsLTToinai, imperf. sXszTrojur/y, 

perf, XiXeififxai, conj. and opt. wanting^ 

\iXei\pai, imper. XiX^ipo, XeXsi^Ow, &c. 

XiXsiTTTaL, &c. infin. X^Xd(pdai, part. XeXsififxivog, 
plusq. lXiXufifir]v, xpo^ ttto, &c. aor. IXeicpOrjv, 
fut. Xu(pdr](JOfxaL, 
fut. 3. XeXeLxl^ojuai, 

Medium, 
Fut. XdxpOjULai, 
aor. (2.) eXi7r6jj.r]v, conj. XiirMiuat, opt. XnTOiju-nv, 

imper. Xtirov, &c. pi. XiTTEcrOe, &c. 
infin. XnriaOai, part. Xnr6f.uvog. 
Verbal adjectives^ XsLTrriog, XeiTTTog. 



rpa<p(i) {to write). Med. {to accuse.) 

Activum. 

Pres. ypafjyoj, imperf. eypacjyov, 

perf. yiypatpa, plusq. iyeypa^uv, 

fut. ypaiptj, 
aor. eypa-ipa, conj. ypaxl^d), opt. ypd^aifxi, ypw^aiq, ypdipai, Sec. 

imper. ypd%pov, cltm, &c. infin. ypd\pai,part. ypdipag. 

Passivum. 

Pres. ypd(pofiai, imperf. kypa(j)6ij.r}v, 

perf. yiy pajuLfxai, yiypa^pai, yiypairrai^ See. 

plusq. lyey pdiu/ir}v, xpo, ttto, &c. 

fut. 1. and aor. 1. {eypdcpOriv,) seldom used, 

fut. 2. ypa(pi]GOfxai, aor. 2. lypdcp-qv, 

fut. 3. yeypdipopai. 

Medium. 

Fut. ypd\pofjiaL, aor. lypa-^dp.r\v, {imper,) ypdxpat. 
Verbal adjectives, ypaTTTiog, ypairrog. 



174 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

"Apx^ (^0 take the lead, rule over), Med. {to begin.) 

Activum. 

Pres. apx^} impel f. ripx^^^ 

perf. (ilpx"') ^^^ plusq. hardly ever occur. 

fut. ap^(t), 

aor. ^p^tty conj. apK(i), opt. ap^aifxi, ap^aig, ap^aiy &C. 

imper. ap^ov, ap^arii), &c. 

infin.ap^aiypart. ap^ag. 

Passivum. - 

Pres. apxoimat, imperf. ripx^javv, 
perf. ripyjuai, dual, rjpyiuEOov, pi. ripyjUiOa, 
^pKai, ripxOov, rjox^^y 

ripKTai, ripxOov, 3 per s. wanting. 

conj. and opt. wanting, imper. rip^o, ripx^oj, Sec, 
infin. ripx0ai,pa7't. ripjimEvoQ, 
plusq. Yipyfxiqv, dual, rjpyfieOov, pi. ripyjUL^Oa, 
r\plo, ripxOov, ripx^^, 

^pKTo, vpxOriv, 3 pers. wanting, 

fut. apx^yicrojULai, 
aor. ripxOr}v, conj. apxOoj, opt. apxOdrjVj imper. apx^^l^h 

infin. apxOrivai, part. apxOu.g, 
fut. 3. wanting (see § 99. Obs. 2). 

Medium. 

Fut. apE,oiULaiy 

aor, Tjp^ajurjv, conj. ap^dyp-aij opt. ap^aifir\v, imper. ap^ai, dcrOw, &c. 

infin. ap^aaOai, part. apE,aiui£vog. 
Verbal adjectives, (in the tense of the active and middle 

voice,) apKTiog, apKTog. 



Sfceua^w {to equip), 

Activum, 

Pres, GKEvaZiOf imperf, IcFKeva^ov, 

perf. laKtvaKa, conj. IdK^vaKU), opt. i(TK£vaKoifjii, imper, not used, 



VERBS. 175 

plusq. laKivcLKuv, infin. tcFKEvaKevai, part, ecjKevaiciog, 

fut. (JKEVaCTW, 

aor, IdKevaaa, conj. aKZvaaw^ opt, (rKwaaaijui, aig, (JKevatraif &c. 
imper, (jKsvacrov, 
infin. GKevaaai, part. (TKEvaaag. 

Passivum, 

Pres. (TKevaZo/aai, imperf. laKEvaZ6fir]v, 

perf. laK^vaGfiai, dual, IcrKevcKTuieOov, pi. IcTK&vaafiida, 
saKtvacraL, EdKevaaOov, laK^vaoOe, 

iGK^vaaraL^ laKtvaaOov, 3 pers. wanting^ 

conj. and opt. wanting, imper. Eo-jctuao-o, IcTKEvdaOw, &c. 
infin. laK^vaadai, part. laK^va&iiivog, 

plusq, ecTKEVcKjfirjv, aaOf aaro, &c. 

fut. aKEvaaOticTOfiai, 

aor. EdKEvaaOriv, 

fut. 3. (£(7K£ua(70juaf,) does not occur. 

Medium. 

Fut. (JK£Va(70jULai, 

aor. EGKEva<Tajur]v, conj. (jKEvcKjujfiai, opt. &KEva(Taifxr)v, 

imper. aKEvaaai, (TKEvacrdcrOw, &c. 

infin. <jKEvd(Ta(T9ai, part. (jKevaadiuevog. 
Verbal adjectives, (TKevaarlog, (TKevaGTog. 



Ko/it^w {to bring). Med. {to receive). 

Activum. 

Pres. KOfiiciu}, imperf. IkojuiZov, 

perf. KEKOfjLiKa, plusq. Ikeko/ulikelv, 

fut. KOjULiaw, 

fut. Att. KOfjiiCj, dual, pi. KOfiiovjiEVj 

KoiLiieig, KOjiiHTOv, kojlueTte, 

KOjULiEi, KOfjiieirov, Koiniov(n{v), 

opt. KOfxio^iuLii oig, &c. infin. KOjuteiv, 
part. KOjuiMv, ov(7a, ovv, gen. ovvrog, 
aor. EKOfjiKja, conj. jcojuio-w^ opt. KOfiicrai/jii, KOfxiaaig, KOfxiaai^ &c. 
imper. kojulgov, infin. KOiuLiaaijpoj^t. KOfxiaag. 



176 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Passivum. 

Pres. KOfiiZoiiai, imperf. lKopiiZ,6ixr]v, 

perf, KSKOjULLaiuai, (compare scr/ccuao-juaf,) 

C07iJ. and opt. wanting, imper. kekoilugo, iaOtOy &c. 

infin. KiKOfxiadaL, part. KeKOjUKriiivog, 
plusq. lK.tKOfiiafxy\v, 
fut. KOfXiaOrjaoiuai, 
aor. iKOfiiaQriVy 
fat. 3. [K^KOfiidOfxai,) does not occur. 

Medium. 

Fut. KOflLGOfXai, 

fat. Att. KojunovjuLai, dual, KopnovfitQov, pi. Kojiiovfi^Qa, 
KOiLU£:V, KOjuiiucrOov, KOjuielaOe, 

KOjuiairai, kojiislgOov, KOjunovvrai, 

opt. KO}Xioilir]V, KOfiLoXo, &c. 

infin. KOjuialaOai, part. KOfiLovfievoQ, 
aor. iKOnLGctfiriv, conj. Konuawfiai, opt. Koiunaaifjirjv, imper. KOfiKrai, 

infin. KOfiiaaadai, part. KOfiLaan^voq. 
Verbal adjectives, KOfjiiareog, KOjuiarog. 



(pv\a(T(7(jj [to guard). Med. (to be on one's guard.) 
Act. 



Pres. 


(pvAaTTio, J 


imperf. E^vXao-o-ov, \ 

l(f)vXaTTOV, j 


perf 


7re(l)vXaxa} 


plusq. £7r£^i»Xa^£tV5 


fut. 


(j)v\a^(.o, 


aor, i(pv\a^a. 



Pass. 

Pres. <^i»Xao-(To/xaf;, \ imperf. c^uXao-crojuijy, 1 

(pvXaTTOjuai, ) E^uXarrofirjv, j 

peif. TTs^vXayjuat, dual, Tre^vXayjueOov, pi. TTf ^i/Xay^ut^a, 
Tre^vXa^ai, Tr£(l)vXa)(6ov, 7re(pi)Xa)(6s^ 

7r£(pvXaKTai, 7re(l)vXaxOov, 3 pers. wanting, 

conj. and opt. wanting ; itnper. irz^vXa^o, Tre^uXax^w, &c. 
infin. 7re<pvXax9aL, part. irecpvXayfjievog, 

1 See below, the Note to Obs. III. 3. 



VERBS. 177 

plusq. ETTE^uXayiitrjv, dual, £Tre(pv\ayfxe6ov, pi. sTTf^i^XayjUf^a, 
e7r£(j)v\aE,o, l7rs(l)v\a)(6ov, lirecpvXaxO^} 

lTT£(l)vXaKrOf ETTEcpvXaxOnv, 3 pers, wanting. 

fut. (pvXaxOiiGOiJLai, 
aor. IcpvXaxOrjv, 
fut. 3. 7r£0uXa^o/xat. 

Med. 
Fut, (^vXa^oiiai, aor. hpvXa^dpL^v. 

Verbal adjectives, cpvXaKTeog, (pvXaKTog* 



'Opv(T(7co {to dig). 

Act. 

Pres. opvaaii), opvTTit), imperf. wqvcjgov, wqvttov, 

perf. oQWQvxa, conj. bgii)Qvx'^^ opt. opcopvxoifJih imper. not in use, 

infi7i. 6pu)pvxivai, part. 6p(i)pvxu)Q, 
plusq. wpiopvx^f-V} 
fut. opv^Lo, 

aor, (opv^a, conj. opv^tj, opt. opv^aifxi, opv^aig, opv^ai, &c. 
imper, opv^ov, infin. opv^ai, part, opv^ag. 

Passivum. 
Pres. hpvcTdOfxm, \ imperf. copvacTOfxriV) 

OpVTTOfXai, ) WpVTTOfjirjV, 

perf. opwpvpixai, conj. and opt. wanting, imper. opwpv^o^ 
6p(x)pvx9(i), &c. infin. opwpvxQdi, part. bpwpvyfxivoQ, 

plusq. wpwpvy}ir]v, 

fut. 1. opvxOrjcTOiuLaL, fut, 2. opvyricroiuLai} 

aor. 1. ojpvxOriv, aor. 2. Wjovyrjv, 

opvxOrivai, &C. opvyrivai, &C. 

fut. 3. wanting, (see § 88. c. Obs. 2.) 

Med. 

Fut, opv^ojLiai, 

aor. WjOu£ajLirjv, conj. opv^wfxai, opt. bpv^aifiy)v, imper. opv%ai^ 
infin. opv^aaQai, part, opv^a/nevog. 
Verbal adjectives, opvKTiog, opvuToc. 

N 



178 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES. OF THE VERBS IN X ju v p. 



'AyY^XXo) {to announce) 
Act 



conj. ayyiXXd), opt. ayy^XXoiiuiL, imper. ayyaXXe, 
infin. ayyiWeiv, part. ayyiWtjjv. 



Pres. indie. 
ayyiXXoj, 



imperf. 

riyyeXXov. 



perf. indie. 
riyyeXKa, 



conj. riyyeXKtj, opt. riyyiXKoi/uLL, imper. not 
infin. TjyysXKevai, part. r}yyeXKiog, 



m use. 



plusq. 

riyyiXKHV, 



fut. 2. indie. 
ayysXu)} 
ayyeXsig, 
ayyeXei, 
opt. 

sing. ayyeXoTiuLi 
ayyiXolg, 
ayyeXoT^ 



dual. 



ayyiXeirov, 
ayyeXeirov, 



pi. ayyeXovjuiev, 
ayy^XetTE, 
ayy£Xovai{v), 



dual, — pi. ayy^oifi^Vi 

ayyeXolroVf ayyEXolrE, 

ayyeXoirrtVy ayyeXouVj 

or, 
ayy^Xoiriv, oir]g, oir], — oir^rov, otT^rrjv^ oir^juev, oirtre} otrjcray^ 
see Obs. II. 3. to ruTrrw, 
infin. ayyeXetv. 
part. ayyeXCjv, ayyeXovaUf ayyeXovv, gen. ayyeXovvrog. 



aor. 1. indie. 
riyyeiXa, 



conj. ayydXh)^ opt. ayydXaifxi, imper. ayynXovy 
ayyilXaig, 
ayyelXaiy See. 
infin. ayyeiXat, part. ayyalXag. 



conj. ayyiXio, opt. ayyiXoijiL, imper, ayyiXe, 
infin. ayycXav, par^t. ayyaXivv. 



aor. 2. indie. 
rJ'yyEXov ^^ 



^ See about the use of this tense in this verb the Note to § 101. 06s. 4. 



VERBS. 



179 



Pass. 

{to be announced.) 



Pres. ind. 



conj. ayyiWwfjiat, opt. ayyeWoi/iiriv, impe7\ ayyiWov, 
infin. ayy^XX^GOai, part. ayyeWofievog, 



imperf. 
rjyyEXXoiurjv 



perf. ind. 

riyyeXfxai, dual, i^yyO^fiedov, 

iiyyeXrraiy i'jyy^XOov, 

riyyeXrai, rjyyeXOov, 

conj. and opt. wanting, 
imper. rjyyEXao, riyyiXOu), &c. 
infin. rjyyeXOai, part. rjyysXiuLivog, 



pi. -nyyeX/uisOa, 
TJyysXOs, 
Spers. wanting, 



Plusq. 



-nyyeXfir^v, 

i]yyeX(70, 

i^yyEXro, 



dual, riyyiXfieOov, 
^yy^XOov, 
riyyiX9r]v, 



pi. i]yyiXfi^da, 
i]yyEXOE, 
3 pers. wanting, 



M 1- 

ayyEXOrioroiiiai, &C. 



aor. 1. ind. 
riyyiX9r}v. 



conj. ayyeXOi^, opt. ayyeXOdriv, imper. ayyiXOrjri, 
infin. ayyeX6t]vaLi part. ayyEXOelQ, 



ayyfXr/crOjUaf, &c. 



aor. 2. ind. 
rtyyiXrjv, 



conj. ayyeXo), opt. ayyeXeiriv, imper. ayyiXr]Oi, 
infin, ayyeXrivai, part. ayyeXeig, 



fut. 3. wanting. 



(see § 99. Obs. 2.) 



Med. 



Fut. indie. 

ayyeXov/jLai, 
ayyeXi^ or a. 
ayyeXurai, 



{to announce one's self.) 



dualy ayyeXovjUEOov, 
ayyiXEicrOoVf 
ayyeXuaOov, 

N 2 



pi. ayyeXovf^uOa., 
ayyeXeicrOs, 
ayyiXovvTaii 



180 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Opt, 
Sing. ayyeXoijiiriVf dual, ayyeXoifjieOovy pL ayyiXoifxSa, 

ayyeXoiO', ayyEXolcrOov, ayyeXoiaOe, 

ayyEXolTO, ayysXoiaOr^v, ayyikolvTO, 

infin. ayyeXeiGOai, part. ayyeXovjuevog, rj, ov, 

COnj, ayydXMjULai, opt, ayyeiXaijULriv, ayydXaio, &C. 



aor, 1. ind, 
YiyyuXafjLrjv, 



imper. ayyuXai, artoy &c. 
infin, ayydXaaOat, part. ayyuXaiusvoQ, 

COnJ, ayyiXio^aij opt. ayyfXotjurjv, iXoio, &C. 



aor, 3. ind, 
-nyyeXojjLriv 



imper, ayyeXov, 
infin, ayyeXifrOai, part. ayyeXofievog, 

Verbal Adjectives^ ayyEXTtog, ayy^Tog, 
See in the Appendix an alphabetical list of Barytone Verbs, 
partly for practice, and partly stating the particular use of 
each. 



OBSERVATIONS TO ALL THE PARADIGMS. 

I. Accent. 

1. The basis of the theory of accents in verbs is, that the accent stands as far 
back as possible ; consequently in dissyllables always on the first syllable, 

TVTTTit), TVTTTe, XsiTTW, XeTtTE, 

and in trisyllables and polysyllables, whenever the nature of the final syllable 
allows it, on the antepenultima, 

TVirrOlllV, TVTTTOVCTl, TSTV(pd<n, TVTTTOfXai 

'irvKTS, erv\l/a, iTva'ihvoVj s^vXa^a, 
and the imper. 

^vXaTTe, (pvXa^ov, <pv\a%ai, 
(but Traidevoj, (pyXdrreiVf &c. because of the long final syllable.) Hence dissyllable 
compounds throw the accent on the preposition whenever the end-syllable allows 
it, for instance — 

(pspe, Xhtts, — Trpoa^spSj dTrSXsnrs. 

2. When an accented augment is dropped, the accent in simple verbs always 
falls on the next syllable, ex. gr. 'i(3aXf, ecpevys, — (3dXs, (pevye : but in compounds, on 
the prep., ex. gr. iv£(SaXe, 7rpo<Tej3ri, — 'eix(3aXe, irpoa^r}. And in the former instance, 
monosyllables, the vowel of which is long, always take the circumflex, ex. gr. 'i^ri — 

3. There are seeming exceptions to this fundamental rule in instances grounded 
on a contraction ; hence independently of the verba contracta in the following tenses 
of the usual conjugation : 

1.) The flit. 2. and/Mt Att. of all kinds, (§ 95, 7-11.) 
2.) The conj. of the aor. pass. rvcpOw, rvrrdj ^, &c. 

1 These conjunctives, as well as those of the conjugation in jut, are actual contrac- 
tions, since the rj of the indie, first became kcj, kyg, &c. and this again w, yg. See 
below, Obs. Y. 14, compared with § 107. Obs. III. 2. 



VERBS. 181 

3.) The temporal augment in trisyllabic compounds, {ex. gr. avd-no, avriTr- 

Tov,) see § 84. Ohs. 4. 
But the following are real exceptions : — 

1.) The aor. 2. (to distinguish it more clearly from i\xQ pres. tense, see § 96. 

the Note to Ohs. 3.) throws the accent in the following instances on the 

termination : — 

a. In the infin. a.n^ part. act. and 'uifin. w.ed. always 

TVTZnv-^ TVTTUJV, TVTtiGdai. 

b. In the sing, of the bnper. aor. 2. med. usually, ex. gr. 

yevov, Xa6ov, but in the p>l. ysveaOs, XdOsaOe. 

c. In the s'uig. of the imper. aor. 2. act. merely in the following verbs : 
£(-£, kXOs, evpk, and according to the connect Attic prouimciation also 
\a[3k, Ice. 

The compotmd ii/per. follow again the general rule, e;rt\a0ou, d-eXOe, 
elffLce. 
2.) The innn. andpa/i. of the pcrf.pctss. are distinct from the rest of the pass. 
conjugation even by their accent, which they always have on the penultima, 
T£-v(p9ai, 7re—oi}i<j9ai, 
Te-i'i-ifisvog, Tre-oijjj-Lsi'og. 
3.) All injin. in vat (except the dialectic form pLtvai, Ohs. V. 9.) have the 
accent on the penultima, rervcpsvai, rv(p9rjvaL, TVKi]vai. See also the 
infin. of the conjugation in ^a. 
4.) The infi.n. aor. 1. act. in at and the 3 pers. of the opt. act. in ot and at 
always keep the accent on the penultima; even when they are polysylla- 
bles, ex. gr. 

infin. (pvXd^aL, Tvaidevaai, 



3 pers. opt. (pvXd-roi, (pvXd^ai, rraihi/ 



vaai 



5.) All participles in wq and Hg have the acute accent on the last syllable, 
rsrvowg, rvcpOdg, tvttsic, and in the conjugation in /it those in sig, ag, 
ovg, vg. 

6.) Wherever the masc. of a part, has the accent, the other genders have it 
also, without any regard but to the nature of the syllables, ^yXdrnov, 
(pvXdrrovaa, (pvXd-rov, Tifx-qaojv, riji-qfjovaa, rijj.i](7oi', TeTv(pojg, nrvipvlaf 
TtTvpog. 

7.) In compoimds the accent never can go further back than the augment. 
The few instances in which there is only a short syllable after the aug- 
raent, keep the accent on the augment, when compounded, dvkc!')(^ov, dvkarav. 
But if the augment be dropped, the rule is as stated in 06s. I (7rpo(T/3/;). 

II. — Some particular lonisms and Atticisms. 
1. The lonians make of the imperf. and of the two aor. 

iteratives in -ctkov, pass, form -aKoixyjv, 

2 The infi.n. aor. 2. act. might be classed among the seeming exceptions (2.) 
because the lonians form it like the fut. 2. in keiv, ex. gr. XaiSksiv for Xa^ilv. But 
the case uni^^uestiouably is here the reverse. The accent was thro^m on elv from 
the same motive as on (l>v and kaQai, and the lonians, who were fond of vowels, let 
this accentuation dwindle into a lengthened termination. 

3 It is by this and the third pers. (§ 12. Obs. 3.) of the opt. never taking the cu'- 
cumflex on the penultima, that the three similar forms of the aor. 1. are distin- 
guished, ex. gr. — infin. act. 3 opt. act. imper. med. 

TTaiSti'crai, TraLdsvaai, TraiSevcrat. 

But as the number of syllables, or the nature of the penultima, seldom allows this 
accentuation, we generally can distinguish only two of these forms ; and in such 
verbs as tvtttu} we cannot even distinguish any of the three. See, for instance, 
below in crduj, KOfii^u), ypa^w. 



182 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

for the purpose of denoting the repetition of an action. They are used only in the 
indic.y and commonly do not take the augment. In the verb rvTrna they would look 
thus, 

TVTTTStTKOV, TVTTTeCTKOfilJV, frOUl eTVTTTOV, SfirjV, 

TvipaoKov, Tv\l/a(yK6[xi]v, from 'irvipa, dfjit]Vf 

TV7rs(TKov, TVTTf.<TK6fxi]v, from 'irvTTOv, 6fj,r]v^ 
See also the Ohs. to the contracted verbs, and to those in fii. There are some 
remarkable Epic forms of this kind, which combine the vowel a of the aor. 1. with 
the characteristic of the pres. and iniperf., piTrraa-KOV, K^vTVTaaKS, poiZaaKtv, avaa- 
(jfiaffKs {Hymn. ApoU. 403). See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 94, 4. 

2. The plusq. (1. and 2.) act. in eiv with the lonians made the first pers. ta and 
the third ££ or nv {ersTv^sa, iTsrixpee or -etv). Hence the Attic contracted form 
of the first pers. in rj (from ea), ex. gr. 

I7ren6v9r) for l-jreTTovQeiv, 
which form appears to have been the usual one among the old Attics. But the 
secoyid person rjg, (from eag,) and the thh'd hv, (from isv,) before a vowel, for instance 
TreTToiOiiv for kirtiroiQei, Aristoph, Nub. 1347, B(TTr]Ksiv, II. \p. 691. (compare below 
the third p. imperf. i'laicHv, § 105, Obs. 3.) were perhaps less common with the 
Attics : whatever has been stated about these forms, and about a third })erson r} (for 
fi,) — beside the plusq. ydeiv, (see below old a, § 109. III.) rests solely on a few 
isolated passages, and vague remarks of the ancient grammarians. See Buttm. 
Complete Gr. Gr. § 17- 06s. 14. 

3. There was instead of the opt. act. in oi/ii a collateral form in oirjv, oirjg, air}, 
pi. oirjfxsv, oirjre, oirjcrav, called the Attic form ; but it chiefly occurs only in con- 
tracted verbs, (§ 105.) and consequently also in the fut. circumflex, ex. gr. epoirj for 
SjOoT, oi the fut. epu>, Cyrop. 3, 1, 11. (pavoirjv, Soph. Aj. 313. In barytone verbs it 
occurs merely in the per/. ; ex. gr. 7rt(p8vyoir]v, i\r]kvBoiriv^. 

4. Instead of the opt. aor. 1. act. in aijut, the Cohans had a form in tia, (rvxpHa, 
stag, eiev, &c.) of which we have given in the paradigm three terminations, 

sing, second pers. rv^jjeiag, third Tv\psLs{v), for -aig, -aiy 
pi. third pers. rviptiav, for -aisv, 
which are far more usual than the regular ones. 

5. The form of the third pers. pi. of the imper. in -vrojv, pass, -(rdwv, is called the 
Attic, because most usual with the Attics, though it occurs in other dialects. In 
the act. form it always is like the gen. pi. of the part, of the same tense, excepting 
the perf. {TnTroidkroxynv or 7re7roL96vro)V, — part. TrsTroiOorojv). 

III. — Second Pers. Sing. Pass. 



1. The primitive termination of the second pers. of the pass, form ffai and ffo (see 
§ 87- the Table f) has maintained itself in the usual conjugation only in the perf. 
and plusq., and in the verbs in fit (§ 106. Obs. 2). It is merely in the less polished 
dialects that we find the second persons rvTrreaai, kTvirrtao, imper. rvirTtao, aor. 1. 
med. lTv\pa(jo, — conj. rvTrrrjaai, &c.^ 

2. The lonians rejected the a of this old form, and thus made it eat, rjai, eo, ao, 
v/hich the common language again contracted into y, ov, w, for instance, 



^ Except these instances, it is only the anomalous aor. 'iaxov from £%w, which 
always has (T%oij;v in the op)t. 

5 The second pers. pres. pass, of the contracted verbs appears to have been of 
frequent occuri^ence in the popular language ; we find, for instance, in the JVeio 
Testament, Kavxacfcct for Kavxdeaai, commonly kuvx^', the contraction of Kavxay 
(see below tiixcim}. 



VERBS. 183 

lon.f common^ Ion., common, 

2 pres. ind. TvitTsat, Tvirry, imper. rvTrreo, tvtttov, 

— conj. TVTrrijai, Tvirry, 2 imperf. ervTrreo, ervTrrov, 
2. aor. 1. med. Ion. kTvijyao, common krvxl/oj. 
Thus the opt. okto was made oio, which continued to be the common form, not being 
susceptible of contraction. — But the <y is never dropped in the per/, and pliisq. ex- 
cepting ecravo. See the Anom. (tivu). 

3. The Attics had also this peculiarity, that they contracted the y which came 
from f ai into u. This form, which has on that account been added every where in 
the paradigm, was unquestionably the usual one in genuine Attic writers, excepting 
the tragic poets, as well as in the popular language, and in the verbs (3ov\o[iaif 
o'iofiai, Sindfut. oipoiiai, (see the Anom. opdo),) the second pers. 

^ovXh, o'iei, orpsi, 
thus remained alone in common use, so that (5ovXy and uly can only be conjunctives. 

4. The Doric and Ionic dialects have ev instead of so or ov, {krvTrrsv, imper. tvtt- 
rev,) see § 28. Obs. 5. — and the Epic poets may lengthen the e of the imper. and 
make it ei, but it occurs seldom, ex. gr. ipeio for epso, from iponai {II. X. 611). 

IV. — Ionic form of the third pers. ^l. 
pass, in arai, aro. 

1. lnihethirdpers.pl. of both the indie, and opt. pass., hnt never in the conj., 
the lonians changed the v into a, and consequently had, for instance, 

opt. TVTrroiaro for tvtttoivto, 
perf. TViTcai^svarai for TreTraidewrai, 

— KtKXiarai for KSKXivrai, 
which form was sometimes imitated by the Attic poets, for the sake of the metre. 
See also below the verbs in ew and aw. 

2. The lonians sometimes do the same with the termination ovto, changing the 
into e, ex. gr. 

sjSovXsaro for ejSovXovro. 
But ovrai, {Tvirrovrai, Tvxpovrai, &c.) and the termination of the conj. ojvrai, 
always remain unchanged. 

3. The third pers. lol. perf. and plusq. pass, may by means of this lonism be 
thus formed, (and even Attic prose-writers, as Thuc. and Plato, do it sometimes,) 
when the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, (see § 98, 2. with Obs. 2.) for 
instance, 

TSTV(paTai, for — ^vrai, 

STiraxaro, — X^'''^} 

eardXaTat, — Xvrai, 
from TVTTTU), TaTTu), (TTeWb), and the like. — In cfKiKarai, (Ion. for oKpiKarai, see the 
Anom. iKvso[xai,) the charactei^istic of the verb is retained unchanged instead of %. 

4. The lingual letters appear again in lieu of the tr, which is dropped before 
vrai, VTo, for instance of tts'lOuj, TtiTreiafiai, 

^ pers. pi. TreTvtiOarai for ireTrsivrai, 
and of Ipsidoj, sprjpsKTjxai, 

eprjpsSarai, (Horn.) for Iprjpsivrai, 
(where the diphthong is made short on account of the Attic redupl. § 85, 2.) and 
with the ^, which is concealed in the Z, being restored (§ 92, 8), 
laKtvddarai, fctx^pt^arai, from aKevd^u), ;;^a>joi^a». 

5. We find in editions of Homer verbs formed in this manner, which have neither 
d nor K in the pres. 'Eppdcarai (from paivcj, 'ippaaiiai, § 101. Obs. 8. b.) may, how- 



184 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

ever, be derived from a collateral form PAZQ^from which pmnan occurs in 
Homer. The others cannot be safely relied on in grammar *". 

V. — Miscellaneous Remarhs. 

1. Some unpolished dialects, and especially the Alexandrian, (§ 1. Ohs. 10.) gave 
to the third pers. pi., in the liistorloal tenses, and the opf., the termination aav: hence 
we frequently meet, particularly in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, with 
forms like Itpaivoaav, ktpvyoaav, XuTTOKrav, (for f.(paivov, 'icpvyov, XeiTroiev,) &c. 

2. The Dorians and the poets, on the contrary, have in some cases a bare v, with 
a short vowel instead of aav, the termination of the third pers. pi. This occurs 
especially in the aor. 

third pers. pi. eTV<pOsv, tTvirev, for -rjcrav, 
(but never r}v, for with respect to Homer's [JiidvOrjv see jjLiaivio in the list of Anom. 
Verbs.') The other instances belong to the conjugation in jwi. 

3. The same unpolished dialects (1.) by a still stronger anomaly gave to the third 
pers. pi. of the 2->erf. den the {historical) termination ou' : hence in the New Testament 
^yviOKav and upr]Kav, in the Batrachom. 178. 'dopyav. See about the interchange 
with the third pers. of the dual in a narrative, ex. gr. II. k. 364. diwKETovj instead of 
-nv, § 87. Ohs. 2. 

4. The third pi. of the principal tenses has commonly vti instead of aiv or ct in 
the Doric dialect, as we remarked § 87. 06s. 3. explaining by it the long vowel 
before the tr in the usual form : thus, 

TVirrovTi, rerixpavTi, for rvTrToycn, Tsrvfaaiv, 

COnj. TVTtTuJVTl, for TVTTTCOfflV, 

fut. 2. nsvsovTi, ixevtvvTi, for (/lei^lovcri) fxevovaiv. 
This form does not take the v l(pi\icv(JTiK6v. — Another Dorism is rvTrroiai for 

TVTtTOVai. 

5. Even in the terminations ovaa and clq, dcra, of the participle, the long vowel 
comes from the omission of v or vr, which appears from the gen. masc. The Dorians 
always have oi and ai in its stead : 

TVTTTOKJa, for TVTTTOVaa, 

aor. 2. Xa(5oTaa 7, for XafSovaa, 
TV^aig, rutpaiffa, for rvtpag, aaa. 

6. The Epic poets allow themselves to make the accented o long in the oblique 
cases of the part. perf. : for instance, rtrpiyijjTaQ for -orag. See about the Doric 
part. perf. in lov, ovaa, § 111. 

7. The Dorians also introduced their a into the terminations irvTrronav, irervfji' 
fiav, TVTTToiixav, &c. for -yiriv, and (though less frequently', and only in the later 
Dorisms,) into the termination of the aor. pass., ex. gr. Irvirav (Theocr. 4, 53). 

8. The first pers pi. act. in [xev is in the Doric dialect fisg, {tvtttoixsq, ervipafieg,) 
and the first pers. dual and pi. pass. fxeOa, p.tQov, is with the Dorians and poets 
[xeaOa, fieaOov, with an a inserted : 

rv7rrdjU£cr0a, TvitTOjitaQov. 

9. The infin. in nv and vai had, in the old language and the dialects, the form of 
liivai and /xev, thus, 

TVTTTSfJievai, rvTrTSfiev, for tvttthv, 
TtTvcpkixtvai, rtTV(pkixtv, for rerv^kvaif 
TVTrfjjxevai., rvTrrj^tv, for TVTvrivai, 

•^ II. p. 637- aKrjx^^arai from cLKrjxepi-ai, (see Anom. aKax'iK(^,) and Od. r). 86. 
IXriXddaTo from IXciw, kXfjXaixai, both with doubtful various readings. See Buttm. 
Complete Gr. Gr. § 98. Ohs. 13. 

'^ Not Xa^tvaa, because there is here no contraction. See § 13. Ohs. 13. Note. 



VERBS. 185 

and sometimes tliey were syncopated, idfisvai. — (See also below the Contracted 
Vei'bs and the Verbs in jui.) 

10. But the Dorians in particular make the infin., instead of slv — sv or r]v, with- 
out either removing the acute accent backwards, or changing it ; for instance, 
Hfpiadev, evSev, atiSev, for [xepiZ^Lv, evdecv, deictiv, aor. 2. ciyayiv for dyayeXv — 
Xaipriv for xaipeiv (not ^ai'p^v). 

11. We also sometimes find in Doric ^\Titers the second pers. pres. act. eg instead 
of eig, likewise Avithout any change in the accent ; ex. gr. djisXyeg for dfiiXyeig, 
Theocr. 

12. The old language had in the second pers. act. instead of g, 

the final syllable c6a, 
v.hich in Homer and other poets is frequently annexed to the conjunctive, and less 
frequently to the opt. ; ex. gr. lOsXyaOa for lOkXyc, KXaioicrOa for KXaioig, but 
which has maintained itself in the common language only in a few anomalous verbs 
(see below, § 108, 109. 6f/.a, ci/zt, (prjjjii, and oUa). 

13. The three terminations which are considered as peculiarities of the conju- 
gation in /It : 1 sing, jut, 3 sing, cri, imper. Bi, probably belonged to the verb itself 
in the most ancient language. Hence the inq^er. 6t, not only in the aor. pass, but 
also in the syncopated j^^^K'^- (§ HO.) The first pers. fxi has maintained itself in the 
usual conjugation only in the opt., but the oldest Epic poets had it also in the con- 
junctire, ex. gr. 

iK(i)^i, ayayWjUi, for iKio, ayayuj. 
Lastly, the third pers. sing, ot or aiv is also very usual in Epic poetry in the conj.j 
ex.gr. 

TVTTTytnv, exV^h ^c>v tvtztjj, exy. 
(See about the indie, rja instead of the usual form, § 106. Obs. 10.) 

14. The circumflexed forms are either resolved or lengthened by the lonians, 
viz. the infin. aor. 2. act. tlv is kuv, as (pvyUiv for (pvytlv from icpvyov, (see the 
2^ote to Obs. 1, 4.) and the conj. of the two aor. pass, ai is ew. Epic eiu), (see the 
Note to Obs. I. 3.) thus : 

conj. aor. l.pctss. ivpeOsoj, for tvptOCj, (from evp'E9t]v,) 
conj. aor. 2. pass, rvrrku), Epic Tvirtno, for tvttu). 
In the persons of this conj., which end in v, the Epics sometimes lengthen the pre- 
ceding e in this manner, and sometimes double it, (/jj?,) for instance, {}ddyLi]v 
danu), ^afieiu},) ^ajxdyg, dafieiy, II. y. 436. %. 246, {kcraTrrjv, craTrid, (Tairdu),) 
aaTrrjy, r. 27. Compare below the dialect forms of the verbs in /.a, which must be 
here considered as a basis ^. 

15. The conj. in Epic poetry sometimes loses its long vowel, and takes o and e for 
0) and T], ex. gr. lofnv, let us go, (see below dfxi, conj. iw.) sysipofiev for -wnev, (II. (3. 
440.) epvaaofxtv for conj. aor. 1. epvcrujfiev, (a. 141.) ifieipsraL for -rjrai, [Od. a. 41.) 
vavTiXXerai {d. 672). See also e'ldoixsv under oUa (§ 109. III. 6). It occurs 
most frequently in the co7ij. aor. pass., for instance, dansioixev, Sandere^. 

8 There is a third reading in the quoted passages, (11. y. 436. %. 246.) and 
others, where it clearly is the conj.,\iz. Safxurjg, ^a^ufi?;, without the iota subscriptum. 
See about it the Xote to § 107. Obs. IV. 9. 

^ This has been attempted to be considered a mere deviation from syntax, as if it 
were the indie, instead of the conj. But as this interchange occurs only where the 
metre does not allow the conj., it is obvious that, whilst the language was not 
settled, pronunciation came to the assistance of the metre. And tliis view of the 
matter is placed beyond all contradiction by instances where there is no indie. 
similar to the abbreviated conj. This is the case with t'lSofitv, Qtiojitv, (for 
6'euj[iev,) lofjisv, and all conjunctives of the aor. pass. We cannot presuppose in 
Homer an indie, ddio, I knoic, Oeiuj, I 2nit, loj, I go, for else these forms would as 
readily occur as real indie, and be met with also in the other persons, (e'ldu) 
iUov(jL, &c., with the signification to know,) which, however, is not the fact. 



186 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§104 

1. The rules which we have just given show merely the 
manner in which the different tenses are formed. But no 
language affords fixed rules to know which formation each par- 
ticular verb follows, when there is a diversity of formations 
possible. A great part of this is matter of memory, and just 
as we are obliged in Latin to remember the perf. and supinum 
of every verb, especially of the third conjugation, we must in 
Greek remember in each verb every one of the tenses, of which 
we have been hitherto treating in particular Sections, 

2. It is of the most material importance to know whether 
the aor. 2. act,, the perf. 2., and the aor. 2. pass, of a given 
verb are in use. These tenses are certainly related to each 
other in form ; but it does not follow (as has frequently been 
observed) that a verb which has one of these tenses has also 
the others. On the contrary, we have seen that the aor. 2. act, 
and pass, seldom occur together in one verb. The Lexicon, 
or the lists in the Appendix, must be diligently consulted. 
Actual instances must have been met with of each of these 
tenses, which is a very uncommon occurrence, or it may safely 
be assumed that the verb barely has the other tenses, viz. the 
aor. 1. act. ^ perf . 1., and aor, \,pass,^ 

3. It may be considered as an invariable rule that all trisyl- 
labic and polysyllabic derivative verbs which end in 

a^w, iZ,(i), aivw, vvu), £uw, ow, aw, £W, 



as 



(TKsvdZ(Jt) from (jKevrj, voiuLit^it) from vo/iog, 

GTifiaLVd) from GYifxa, evOvvijj from evOvg, 

7rai^£i)(jj from ttoiq, ^ouXow from dovXog, 

TLfiaw from TifXT), (piXid) from (plXog, 

have only 

the aor. 1. act., perf, 1. (in jca,) and aor, 1, pass, 

Obs. 1. Some of these terminations, however, are not derivative in some verbs, 
that is to say, not derived from a noun subst. or adj.^ but mere lengthened forms of 
a simple radical pres. tense, and thereby rendered anomalous. (See § 92.) These 



1 Exactly as in English the greatest number of verbs by far have ed, in the 
imperf. and part. p)cist, {I love, loved, have loved,) and the smallest number have the 
monosyllabic imperf. and ?i part. pass, differing from it (/ see, saw, have seen). And 
in German most verbs have the imperf. te and tlie p)art. pass, t, (' ich sage, ich sagte, 
ich habe gesagt,') and comparatively few a monosyllabic imperf. and the j^art. n, (' ich 
traf/e, ich trug, ich habe geti-agen^); the first form alone is used in German for deri- 
vative verbs, which in Greek have also merely the aor. 1, &c. 



VERBS. 187 

verbs may make a second aor. from this simple form, ex. gr. dXtraivo) from AAITQ 
ijXiTov, da[xd(o from AEMQ eddfiriv: they are all stated in the list of -4 nojHaZows 
Verbs. 

Obs. 2. Hither belong also those derivative verbs which, according to § 119, 4. 
end in aaw, irtd), \Xw, &c., and ai'e derived from nominatives. The verb dWdaaoj 
is the only one of these verbs which has an ao7\ 2. 2^ciss. {rjWdyrjv). 

§ 105. — Conjugation of Verbs contracted. 

1. The Greek verbs in tw^ aw, and ow, conform in the main 
to the rules stated and examples given, and in the Section on 
the formation of the tenses we have attended to their peculi- 
arities. But in the^re^. tense and imperf., act. andjo«55., when 
the vowels a, £, and o happen to stand immediately before the 
vowels of the termination, (and partly remain unchanged in the 
Ionic dialect, see below Obs. 1.) they undergo in both the Attic 
and the common language a contraction. 

2. This contraction follows the general rules of § 28, except- 
ing some terminations in the verbs in ow. Instead of con- 
tracting o£i into ov, and oy into tu, according to the general rule, 
the I of the second and third person predominates, and the final 
syllables oeig and oyg are contracted into oig, and oh and oy 
into OL. Thus — 

Second pers. indie, act. likjOoeiq, ) , ^ ^ 

„ C071J. iLH(TUoyg,i ^ "" 

Third pers. indie, act. ukjOoei, 1 . n - 

^ . Q^ } contr. fiLaOoL. 

„ conj. iLU(j6oy, j ^ ' 

and in the same way 

Second pers. indie, and 

conj. pass. imiaOoy^ contr. juligOoX, 

and as ool is likewise contracted into ot, three moods, viz. the 

indie, conj., and opt. of the act. voice become perfectly like 

in these two persons. The infin. 6hv is correctly contracted : 

fiKjOoeiVi contr. julgOovv. 

3. The whole indie, and conj. act. and pass, of the verbs in 
aw are also perfectly similar, being contracted according to the 
general rule, viz. as and at] into a, au and ay into g, and ao as 
well as aov and aw into w. 



188 



A GREEK GRAMMAR, 








f ^'^ ^'^ •^^ 




r\ ■ 




O O w> w ^ 




Oi to 


^ »3 ^o o 

.b '^ Qi <3i 


IS IS IS IS IS 


IS 


o o 


o o o o o 


o 


> s s 


^ '^ ^ '^ <^ 


«I5 


v2 o -IS 


KS b b b 


b b b b b 


b 


•^ <3:. IS <:ci 
« b o b 


s^ 2. S. S. 


3.5.3.^3. 


2. 


^ 






a S Qb 2 
b =1- c =L 


*§ 


»\ 




§ g g 8 


•♦o 


. . '^ ^ 




S^J^ 


r5^ 


UJ U.) O WJ O 


rt 




«Ki d W W 




3 "C 


---v© ^o ^o 


'^O "^O "^O "'O *^o 


^O 


v© »3 


<^ ^ <^ 


^^ ^^) ^^ ^^> ^^> 


Oi 


Qb <I5 


b b b 


b b b b b 


b 


s <= 










2_ 2. ^. 


5. 2. S. 2. 2. 


2. 


2. 2. 



?^ ;:> ?» vT- 
^ , O O w w ;- ^ 

^^13 ic^'s-^ I is 's >3 IB i3 'e-^ 



"Ka 


;:^ 












?^ ?^ > ce 




^ if j^ 


e s 1 s*^ 1 


^^ 






VC5 vc vc 


ve ^B ^C ^B ^B 


^B 


=L S. S. 


S- =L 5. rs. S, 


5. 








^ ^ I- 


I- I- I- ^ i- 


I- 





o 
»3 




-i 3- 






g s'3 


g 


t^ 


gS,g 


■SJ 


cc 


«3i 




- .1 




Ph 


J^' rx 




a. 


3 ?^ 




OJ 


<B 13 




^ 


5- =s- 












i- CJ 















?» 


;;^ 


f* v_;> 






_ 


„j 


^ ^ 


'll 


^s" 


1 


o 


1 


S_ w b 
IS ,fc IS 

2 5 2 


I— 




e 





1 


o o 


i 




O 


o 


o o o 







IS 


N ^ 


t= 




N 


N 


t^ t= t^ 


Ic 


i^ 


iii 





s 
















vS 



1= 


;i 

IS N 


















•\ 







■€ 












*> 




g 

S 



i 


?r <3J 


-g 












c^ 3 




^ 













;;r 


^r 


^ •o 












"^2 


1 


o 


o 
I- 

VJ 


\>J •^ b 

s2 vS v2 


S3 






t3 




«i •-J 




1 








■«> 










o o 


O 




o 


o 


o o o 















t= 1= 


b 




1= 


tc 


N t= 1= 


t: 


t 




N 




^ 




-O 






I5* 








^- 




•l 




1 






1 








§ 


?j 














* 


■+^ 






L?? 














5^ 

(2 







VERBS, 



189 



<^> '^ <^ 

b b b 

s. S. 2. 



3 ?- ?r- 
v© ^o ^o 
^ ^^ <^ 

b b b 

s. s. 2. 



;4 



g g 5.fc b 

i3 i3 ^313 13 

'^ 1^ ^> ^ '^ 

b b b b b 

2. 2. 5. s- 2. 



^ S ^ -^ 

5=- sr- ci s=-^3 
vo "^o '■o ^o ^o 
'^1 ^ ^1 '3S ^ 

b b b b b 



o o o 

^1 <^ ^ 

b b b 

2. 2, 2. 



3- 5^ ^'^ 

o o o 

^O "O ^o 
Qi ^ '^ 

b b b 



o o o o o ^ g 

b b b b b ^v? u V? 

2. 2. 2. 2. 2..^ ® "5"-S 

»^ ^ . O - t O 

•2_ K wj 



=LS.S,S.=L =L=L=L 



bvfc ^ ^ ^ 

o o o o o 

^t> '^^ ^& ^& ^^ 

b b b b b 

2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 



? O > 





1^- ^^^ *" ,-^ 


«\ 


S > ^ ,^ '^ 


.'-^ 3 




g s 1 e B 

is IS »3 is »3 


2.0J . 
•3-»3-'3- 






3-3-3- 1 


3-3-3-3-3- 


3- =^ =^ I 


3- 3- 3- 3- 3- ^- 


.^.H 


h t- i- 1 


i- h C t- h 


I- P C 1 


h I, I, I, I, -^ 


41--:: :! 








,»N ^ W +3 










O1 ;r It- -M 








?-l 


?=■ ?=• f^ 











-3- £^3- J 




„^ 




•> »\ «N 


-V? ^^ 




^ ^ ^ ^ 




1 1- g J i- 


^ ^1 - 


-'^ ?^ c^ 


£ £ ^S § 


3- ^ •^ 


b .t 3- b S 


1 4i 


3 ?r- S-- 


?=•<=• 3 sr 3 


000 


00000 


^s vc ^s 


vs ^C ^B ^« "S 


vs ^s ^s 


^B S ^S ^C ^S 


=L S- s. 


3-3-3-3-3- 


3-3-3- 


3-3-3-3-3- 


<M >o ^J 










I- u l> 


f^ b! P u C 


K Ci h 


C! C! p p f; 


1 



m 











^" 


;r 


> 


^ 




•^ ^ 













^ 


?^ 




»3 




?s. 




IS- 



IS" 


13 


if ^ 

.s-13 




,3-1$:^ 
2 


1-r 






'2 


-b 




'1-5 


^S 










-J 










•J «j 





























1 
















p 





1 











,^ 


i^i:^ 




1= 


t= 


1= 


1 


1= 


t: 


l^ 


tc N 




tc t^ 


t= 


1 


fe 


t= 


t= N 


t.|^ 


































•Si 
■+SJ 




CO 
































^ 


CO 
































s 


^- vi 


















»\ 
















° fe-° 


& 


4 


0; 


«\ 
















2. 0^ 









s- 
■vb 






2 1^ 




^ 

w 


p- 


??- 




?=■ 


^R- 


v| 


ST 3 




c 










^9 








g ^? 






VUJ 


v^ 




vu^ 






^uy ^ty 




ruj Vyj 


•^UJ 




■^v/J 




vcj -tu 


Viy 








—» 




















-0 




»j ^ 















1 






















I 


















t= 


Ic 


l5 


1 


N 


t^ 


fe 


1= N 




N N 


t= 


1 


N 


t= 


t= t= 


t: 






i. 












i 










^-^ 

s 






"*-* 








.^ 






Q 






Qs 








f^ 






ftn 








•^ 
















**«* 




















S 
















a- 



















190 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



3 o 5 (^ 2 v5) 

5 v;s ,- vp ,:5 ^ ,^ 

c o o o o s b 

vS S to S S^ =^ 
=L =L =L =L =L 5 



^'^ ^ . g £■ S, f ;^ 

^^-? COOo© 

vS vS vS b to b b ^to 

»^W "SJJ "-lU I »-wU •-UU <-wVly'-W 













^ 














o 


;r 












^' 


3 












51 


u 




^ 


^•^ 


5. 




b 


5. 




3 


o 


3 


w 


3 


o 


r> 


^ 


K 


t- 


K 


h. 






w 


^UJ 




^w 


o 


c 


"O 


o 


^O 


O 


b 


"^ -^ OS ^> '^ Qi 


5- 


b 


b 


h 


b 


b 


b 
















S. =L 


=i- 


:i- 


:^ 


5. 





O) c^ 



5> 

o 

^> Qi <^ 
b b b 

V^ v^ V^ 

=1. =L =L 



^ > ? ^ 

.^J ^VJ O UJ o 

^o o ^o ^o o 

^> "^ ^> <^ '^^ 
b to b b ^b 

2, 2. 2, 2.^2. 



S 3 





3 § 


3 «r 


3 


-3 
=L 


^'^ ^ -> 


S- =^ 5- S-v^ 


v2- 


3- 3- 


1- t- J- 

^S )S ^« 

2- S- =^ 


3 c « 












^ U J, 


u u C p! p! 


^P 


c c 


u s 


o 


3 


•^W "UJ rw 1 


•^W t^uj «-W '-W fUJ 




3 o 


3 uT 


b 

3 


1 


£ «." ^ 


^ 1^ ^ 

O S- S w*^ - 


•N 


^ u 


I- t- 


f- 


O tu uj 


w .w O w O 


W 


Vyj W 


VWJ w 


voj 


CSS 


''B c ^s ^e s 




3- ^ 




5, 


K 


.^.S-vS- , 


S~ S- 3~ S--S- 












l~ K (^ 


u p! f! f^ f; 


^^ 


C i^ 


P C^ 


C 




r-W <~UJ f-yU I 


"W "^W '^W "^W ''W 








o 


*\ 














;ik 












> 


3 




^ 






^ 


c 


u 




^•^ -T ^ 


^^ 


3 § 


3 uJ^ 


b 

3 


?4 
o 


;s 0> ^ 

O Cu UJ 


> ^ W „ »N 

afcvb'|~.fc g 

w w O w ^O 


W 


IJJ VJ 


LU VJ 


IJU 


o 












•^ 


N 


o o o 


O O O o O 


^O 


I i 


o o 


g 


N N N 


fc t= fc t: fc 


fc 




•^«J r.^ '•<JJ 1 


^W '-W i-W "W "IM 








?M 














o 


liT 












^ 


3 








si 


3 .r 


3 S 


C=J - 


£: sT ;^ 

1 ? ^ f =^'^ 


^ 


v*" t- 


^J- \^ 


K 


;- 


O w w 


UJ 






vtu 


o 


www 


vw W vw ^w <■» 


v2 


^s ^S 




UJ 


g 


V-J V-j v^ 

O O O , 


^ 'W -o ^ .-o 

o o o o o 


o 




c o 


o 




tc N t^ 


1= k: {^ Ic 1= 




„w «-w "^w 1 


"-W '-W J-W "-W ""W 


1^ 


i^vT 


4 






%! 

s 















3 

w 

5 

%i 
o 

3 



►fa. 



3 

as 

b 



^ b -s 

S-2-.^ 



a 


• 






• r-t 


o 






m 


.°^ 






<u 


•«> — 






«} 


s ?;; 






fl 

D 


-'§ 






4j 








cu 


2- 








c3 










w 


S 






























I— 1 


^ 






nS 


4 '■" 


^ 


b 


03 


I % 


1 


bi) 

3 




1 


vS- 


O 


(. .^W 


l- 


»^w 






















m 


5^ O) 






CO 

G 


.w yZ> 






OJ 


o I 






<M 


^ 






u 


w 






S 


l^ 1 






,o 








fee ^^ 






G 


^^(^ 






*S 


;r 






^ 


c S 




•^ 


3 


^ ^5- 


3*" 




-G 




b 

^5" 


H 


W K. 


o 


.fe 






^ 



VERBS. 191 



13 1- 13 ^3 13 13 ^3 13 13 13 "-3 ,^1-^ ,k ^§- , X ,? ^5",? ,? 

® -S ^ ^ -S -g -S -S -5 -S ® i| ^ 1:= ^ i^ - 1| i< ij 

b^^^^^^^ b ^ b b "^ b^^ b^^ b 

2.3.3,2.5.2,2.2.5, 2.2. 2.5.2.2.2.2.2.2.2. 



^'C ^'S *'0 C ''C ^-C w ^3 ^"0 ^2 O *'w ""C *^2 C *"0 ''C C ""C ""O 

b b^^^^^^^ b b ^ ^ ^ ^ "to ^ ^ "^ ^ tC 

2.2.2,2.2.2.2.2.2. 2.2. 2.2.2,2,2,2,2.2.2. 2 



,1- . ^^^^^ 5- to > "b 5~ ?- -^ ^s5-^^ ?- to,^ 
»3 isois ^3 15 IS ^3 IS i3 IS ^3 '3 's is ^c is is ^3 is ^3 

3- S- 3~ S- 3- S- S- 5- S- 5- S- S- 3- S- S- 3- =2, 2. s, s, 



?S 5- 3- - ^ ,=^^ b,2,b^ b,=2- i--S3-tob^3-b^ 

^ ^ --s ^s ^s s ^s ^s s ^s ^s vs s ^s ^s ^s s ■"s ^s s ^s ^s 
3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3- 3-3- 3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3- 



tl-^^atvg-^b ,to,^ b,§ b.i- S. ^g S.^^^^^ ^ 

2 i" S 2 5 ^ 2 ^ 2 5 2 i ^i"'? I '5" 'i" I '^^^ 
pppoopoco 00 coooSoooo 



3--Sv3-tob^5-b^ bv3- l--::tvi-tob^3-b> 

^«J V^ V^ Vy «>^ V.y ly V^ V^ V^ UJ Vcv V^ VfJ UJ V^ V^ tU ^«j Vjj 

OOOOOOCOC CO ccoooooco 



^i 



•s ^ -^ ^ 5S ,^ 

=? i=i a^ . . j? q s: 

^^ a- 



]93 A GREEK GRAMMAR, 

b b b b b bbbb bbbbbb=^ fesSSSSSSS 

o 

^S" S S "? ?; "S ^S S S 5 to b b b ° ^o o b ^o S -S ^o S o 
bbbbbbbbb bbbbbb=^ SSSSsSSSS 



o 



^ I- ^ I, t, ^ I, 



•N »\ •N 



^o°=l.bbS.bS 4^^ ^ ^ ^ '^ § .^ =^ ® .=t b b =t b S 
a. =L s. =L =1- s. =t =L =L 3- 3- =L =L s, s, ^ §■ ?■ §~ ?~ ?~ ?~ ?" r^ P" 

I- I- t- I- t- t- t- t- h l- b- I- I- t- t- "iU "VJ "VJ -<j:J r-VJ r-i^ ^\jj r-uj r^\u 



1 1 ^5 t ^S ^5 1 1 I '§ ^1 ^^ 1 .5 .5 5 1 ^g ^1 ^g ^S .S ^1 I ^1 

1= N ^ fe t= t= t= t= {s l> N t; N N t= .5 .g .5 .g .g .5 rg -5 ^5 

o 

*-=; s s ^?; s ^;:; ^?; S X ^ b b b b b S ^o o w ^o S vg ^o S o 



OOOOOOOOO oooooo 



N OOOOOOOOO 

"■kW »^W «^W »-W riu *>(« '^W •^W »~i»W 



a^ 






VERBS. 



193 



The rest of the tenses suffer no contraction. We give, how- 
ever, the complete conjugation of the perf. and phisq. pass., to 
render the analogy with the same tenses of Traid^vii) more evi- 
dent. 

Perf, 

T&TLJJilf]fXaiy 

TSTijurirjaij 
TeriiariTai, 
rETijur]jUE6ov, 

TeTif.i{]fj.E6a, 
TETijuyjaOe, 

TeTljUY}VTaL, 



Indie. Sing. 
Dual, 
Plur. 



Treiroiijiuiai, 

TreTTOirjaai, 

TreTToirjraif 

7reTroi{]juieOov, 

TreTTOLYjcrOov, 

TTETTOirjaOov, 

7re7roii]jue9a, 

Treiroir^crOe, 

TreTToirjvrai, 



fXEfxidQwfiai, 

fJLE}.U(jBiOGaL, 

juefiLdOajTai, 

juejukjOcojueOov, 

ILiEfiicrOioaOov, 

fiefiLcjdwdBov, 

jueiuKjOiojueOa, 

luejuiL(jO(ji)(j6e, 

jUEjULaOijjvTai, 



TTETTOLYiCydai, 
TTETTOir^lULEVOg, 

Conj. and opt. wanting. 



In fin. 
Part. 



TETifXr](TUai, 
TETljH1]jUEV0g, 



jUEjULcrOCjcjOaL, 
jUEjuiadiDfjiEvog, 



See the few verbs which can form 



them, & 88, 6. Obs. 2. 



Mper. sing. 



Sing. 



Dual. 



Plur, 



TTEiroirjaro, 
TTETroirjaOb), &c. 



EWE7roirjjur]v, 

ETTETTOirjCrO, 
ETTETTOirjTO, 
ETTETTOajjUtOov, 

ETTETToiriaOov, 
E7rE7roir](jOr}v, 

ETTETTOLl^lJLEda, 
ETTETTOir^arOE, 

tTrETroirjvTo, 



TETlfXTl\(JO, 
TETljUlJCrOcOi &C. 

Plusq. 
ETETifjir]iJir]Vi 

ETETl/iirjCrO, 
ETETljUrjTO, 
ETETLfx{]{lE9oV, 
ETETljiirjaOoV, 

Er8Tiiiii]aOi]v, 

ETETlfJi^^flEQa, 

ETETijuiqaOe, 

ETETLfXriVTO, 



Fut. 1. I 'n'OLif]B{]<jofiai, 
Aor. 1. I E7ron]6r]v, 

TTETroirjaojuai, 



Fut. 3. 



Tifjir]9r](T0iLiai, 

ETLlXl]dr\V, 

TETifir](jOfxai, 



Fut 1. 
Aor. 1. 



TroLYiaofiai, 
ETroiiqadjuriv, 



Medium ^ 

I Tlllll(JOfXaL, 

I ETifxr\Ga{ir]V, 



IULEjULl(j9(i)(J0, 
fJ.EfH<j9(x)(j9(i), &C. 

EfXElXL&9wiir]V, 
EliXEILll(79iO(TO, 

EfXEp.La9(ji)ro, 

EfXEflL(j9u)flE9oV, 

EIJLEfJii(T9w(j9oV, 

lflE{lLo9w(T9Y]V, 

E{lEflL(j9d)fJiE9a, 

EfXElXLG9(x>(j9E, 

EflEllLG9(i)VT0, 

fM(T9(i)9r)(TOILLai, 

EfH<j9cL)9r]V, 

fXElXl(j9(l)G0lXai. 

fii(j9(l)(JOiiai, 
EiiLG9{i}(jaini]v. 



Verbal Adjectives. 



TT0L1]TE0Q, 
TTOlrjTOg, 



Tifiy]TEog, 
rifxy]TOQ, 



TrouTaOcn, to make for one's self; rtfidaOai, to honor, (lik( 
to hire, take to hire. 



IUl(j9u)TE0g, 
flLG9u)T6g, 

the act.^ fxidOovaOai, 



O 



194 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Ohs. 1. It was laid down in ancient Grammars without any limitation, that the 
resolved form of contracted verbs was Ionic. This conjugation may more correctly 
be styled the old or fundamental form, but can only with respect to the verbs in Iw 
be strictly called Ionic, that is to say, that form of conjugation which was employed 
by all Ionic writers, and by the later Ionic prose-writers exclusively. Epic poets, 
on the contrary, often made use of the contracted form, and sometimes only pre- 
ferred the lengthened tiw tosw, ex. gr.6Kvsi(iJ,7rXeisiv, vtiKfie<jKe, &.c. — The resolved 
form of the verbs in a'a> can only so far be called Ionic, as Epic poets made use of it 
on but few occasions, ex. gr. doidtciei, Truvdovra, vauTciovaiv, &c. — The verbs in oa> 
are found resolved only in the first person ; they else generally occur contracted or 
lengthened in a way peculiar to the Epic poets (see below). The verbs in aw and 
dw never are used in Ionic prose, but either contracted, as in Herod, vik^v, ev'iKMV, 
viK(i)Sv, stpMTa, (3iCJ for fSidov, drjXol, sfxiaOovvro, trepoiovro^ &c., or with the pecu- 
liar deviations in point of formation and contraction, stated below, Obs. 7- etc. 

Obs. 2. In the Attic and common language none of the contractions of this con- 
jugation were ever neglected, not even in Attic" poetry (that is to say, in the 
dramatic scenery). Little words in sw, of which the pres. act. is dissyllabic in the 
resolved foi-ni like rpew, are alone excepted. They only admit the contraction £i, 
ex. gr. rpti, trpn, ttvuv : they are resolved in all their other forms, ex. gr. psw, 
ykojiai, Tp'sofxev, Trvkovai, Trvky, &c., excepting however, ^{iv, {to tie,) ex. gr. to dovv, 
T<^ SovvTi, Plato Crat. (6) dvadiSjv, Aristoph. Plut. 589, Siadovnai, &c. But (^tlu 
{to ioant) makes ro dkov, dsofxai, &c. '^ 

Obs. 3. The third pers. sing, imperf. takes the movea,ble v in the resolved form, 
(Homer, ippesv, ?jTsev,) but not in the contracted one. Yet Homer once lisis fjaKttv 
of daicso). (Compare the plusq. Obs. II. 2. to § 103.) 

Obs. 4. The form known by the name of the Attic opt., peculiar to contracted 
verbs, (see Obs. II. 3. to § 103.) has been given at length in the paradigm, p. 181. 
that its analogy may be thoroughly understood. It must, however, not be forgotten 
that the Attic language, guided merely by euphony and clearness, employed parts 
of both forms ; especially 

1.) the pi. of the Attic opt. was little used, (particularly of the verbs in eb> and 
6(11),) because of its length. The third pers. pi. in oiriaav, (frjffav, was much 
less used. The Attic always said Troiolev, TifK^tv, ixiaQouv. 
2.) But the opt. in oiriv of the verbs in gw and om was much more in use in 

the sing, than the other. 
3.) In the verbs in aw the Attic opt. {Ttixt^rjv, &c.) is used in the sing, almost 
exclusively, and also much more employed in the pi. (the third pers. 
excepted,) than the other two. 
Ohs. 5. Some verbs in aw take after their contraction ri for a, as in the Doric 
dialect (see below Ohs. 15). This is particularly known of the following four verbs, 
^yv, {to live,) ;y;pj7(T0ai, {to use,) 
-TTsivyv, {to be hungry,) di'ipyv, {to be thirsty,) 
from ^aw, %paw, (see both among the Anom.) Treivdoj, dixl^dco {KyQ, Kv, ?^»7j XP*?^*^'? 
&c.). But the following three verbs, which approximate much in their signification, 

Kvdo), {to rub,) afido), {to wipe,) \pdoj, {to cleanse,) 
were contracted in the same way, at least by correct Attic writers. 

Obs. 6. The verb piyow {to be cold) deviates in its contraction ; it has w and <^ 
instead of ov and ot, ex. gr. ivfin. piyCJv, opt. piyi^riv, but it is not constantly observed, 
at least not in our editions. The lonians have the same deviation in a vei'b of the 

^ See, however, the Anom. Ssm. — The third pers. sing. aor. 1, f %« a, of the verb xsw, 
(see the Anom.) must not be confounded with the third pers. sing, imperf.: the latter 
is contracted, {txte, t^u,) the former not, ex.gr. Aristoph. Nub. 75. Karfx^ev. 



VERBS. 195 

opposite meaning : 'iSpouj {to perspire) gives idf^CJaa, II. S. 27- 'i-^p<<^il, Hippoer. cle 
Aer. Aq. Loc. 17- 

Dialects, 

Obs. 7- As the lonians form the second per s. pass, in their usual conjugation in tai 
and £0, they have in the verbs in ew an accumulation of vowels, which the Ionic 
prose-writers retain in the pres. (Trotseat, 67raiv££at, &c.) The Epic poets sometimes 
contract the two first vowels, ex.gr. fxvQuai (just as [xvOssTai, iivOCirai). Sometimes 
one £ is elided, that of keo always is ; ex. gr. fxvOeai, {jxvQ'eojxai,) Od. /3. 202. (polSso, 
{(pofSEOfiai,) Herod. 9, 120. a'lvso, a^Tjyso, &c. The forms of this second pers. in hj, 
ay, 6y, eov, dov, 6ov, which we inserted in the paradigms for the sake of uniformity 
in the analogy, do not occur any where. 

Obs. 8. The lonians, as we have seen, do not commonly resolve the verbs in doi 
into theii* proper vowels, yet frequently change the a into e, ex. gr. 
bpkix), opsofxev, for opdoj, opdofxeVf 
(poiTsovrsg, for (pOLrdovTsg, 
Xpssrai, fxr}x<^vki.<7Qai, for drai, aaQai, 
and the like. Sometimes they change ao into hd, (§ 27. Ohs. 1, 10.) ex. gr. ixrjxc-- 
vsojvTai, xp^(t)p-ai, &c. 

Obs. 9. In the third pers. pi., where the lonians (according to Obs. 4. to § 103.) 
change the v into a, {iaro for ovro,) they sometimes use this termination for sovro, 
(eliding one £,) but probably only of verbs in aw, as kurjxavsaro for -dovro, sovro 
usually IfirixavwvTO. In the jyerf. and plusq. they not only change 7]VTai and 
tjvrat into rjarai^warat, {ex. gr. TreTrorfjarai, Kexo\(jJaTo, Hom.) but commonly use 
s instead of rj, ex. gr. 

oiKtarai, STSTifitaTo, for (pKrjvrai, IrsTifiTjvTO. 
Obs. 10. The old Ionian Epic poets employ the contraction at times, and at 
cthei's not. The verbs in dw, however, were seldom resolved, {Obs. 1.) but the 
Poets were at liberty to lengthen again the contracted vowels by placing a similar 
short or long vowel before ; thus they made of a in 

{opdsiv,) bpav, — dpdg.v^, 

(d(T%aXdft,) d(7;i^aX^, — acrxct^dq.) 

2 pers. pass, {fivay,) fiva, — H-^da, 

dyopaaOe, fjiva(y9ai, — dyopdaaQs, fivdaaQai, 

and of or w in 

{bpdo),) bpCJ, — bp6(t), 

imper. pass. {dXdov,) dXw, — dXoujy 

(jSodoucrt,) jSouKTi, — (3o6(jJcn, 

opt. {aiTidoiro,) aiTK^ro, — airioc^TOf 

{dpdovai,) SpOJai, — dpthaxri, 

part. fern. {r)j3dovaa,) r/jSwcor, — rjf3oJ(ij(7a. 
Such lengthened syllables seldom occur in Ion. prose, Herod. 6, 11. j/yopowtro, 
4, 191, fcojuowcrt, — Sometimes the o is put last, ex. gr. 

t'ljSoJovTSQ, rjfSojoijxi, for t)j3u)VTsg, r)(i(^jxi (from — dovreg, doiixi^). 
Thus Poets could use instead of ysXwvreg either yeXocjvTsg or yeXojovreg according 
to the exigency of the metre. — Homer's ^«/t. /em. vaierdcocra for — dovaa or owcra 
is a peculiar anomaly. 

Obs. 11. All the forms lengthened with ow are also common to the verbs in oa», 

^ See about the iota subscriptum the Note to Obs. 15. 

^ This lengthening by means of the w produced in some verbs a peculiar forma- 
tion — (t)(i), (jjeig, oju. See the Anom. ?da», /xdw, and fxvdoj (in fiifivrjcrKOj). 

o2 



196 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

though they cannot originate in them either by resolution or lengthening ; for 
instance, 

{apoovcL,) apovai, Epic apouxn, 

(j£i]"i6ovTO, ^ij'ioouv,) SijiovvTO, ()rfioTtv, Epic drj'iocijvro, dri"i6(^i.v). 
Obs. 12. The lonians make a less frequent use in these verbs of the imperf. 
iterative in (tkov, {Obs. II. 1. to § 103.) ex.gr. ^iKhctkov in Herod. [SovKoXseaKsg ia 
Homer. This form is never contracted, but sometimes syncopated by the old 
Poets, (by dropping the t,) ex. gr. fixi<yKE (for rixktaKi.) from 7)%£w, tacr/cE from 
law, and lengthened vaisTciaaKov from vaurdoj. 

Obs. 13. That the Dorians, instead of contracting eo into ov, commonly make it 
IV, aud that this contraction is also used by the lonians, has already been noticed 
above, § 28. Obs. 5. Thus they make of ttoiew 

TToifvfiev, TTouvfiai, TTOUvvreg, IttoUvv. 
But also of the verbs in 6u) we frequently find in Herod, and others, instead of oo 
contracted into ov, the contraction tv, which is contrary to analogy ; for instance, 

IdiKaievv, kdiicaiev, TrXijpevvTsg, from iiKaioio, ttXjjjoow, 
and by the interchange of a and e, {Obs. 8.) the same contraction occurs also in the 
verbs in aw, 

elpdjrevv, dyaTrevvrsg, from dpcordco, dyaTrdoj. 
Lastly ev is not only used for eov, and consequently for dov, but also for oov, ex. gr. 
7roitv(TL, ^iXevaa^'^, for Troieovcn, ovai, (piKkovaa, ovcra, 
yeXsvcra, for ysXdovaa, wcra, 
SiKauvcn, for diKaLoovai, ovai. 
Attentive reading will show which of these different forms occurs most frequently 
in either of these two dialects. But it follows of course that the third pers. pi. 
TTouixTi, ytXevai, can only be Ionic, since the Dorians have ttouvvti, yiXivvri 
(compare Obs. V. 4. to § 103). 

Obs. 14. There is another more ^olic than Doric contraction, which causes the 
to be absorbed by a preceding a, which thus becomes long, ex. gr. (pvadvTeg for 
^v<TdovTeg, third pers. pi. ttsivojvti or TTSivdvri. 

Obs. 15. If the lonians change the contracted a or a into rj and y, ex. gr. opyv, 
^oiTijv, ii](j6ai, and the like, it agrees with the nature of their dialect, but it is done 
only by some of their writers, for instance, Hippocr. : Herod, has opgii^, viKav, and 
even xpdoBai, XP^> &c. The Dorians, on the contrary, who genei-ally use a mstead 
of 77, prefer the rj in these contractions, omitting, however, the iota subscriptum in 
the contraction of au ^', (compare Obs. V. 10. to § 103.) for instance, bpriv, Iprj for 
Ip^, ToXfifj-e for ToXudri, and tlie like, whilst in conjugating they nevertheless say 
ToXixdaai, and so on. They have the same contraction in the injln. of the verbs in 
£w, ex. gr. KOdfxriv for KoafxeXv. 

Obs. 16. The Epic Poets have likewise the »/ as a contraction, but only in some 
forms of both aw and ew, and chiefly in the dual rrjv, ex. gr. TrpocravdijTTjv, bnaprri- 
TT]v, (from avddu), ofxaprsitj,) and in the lengthened infin. in rjvai, rjfxtvai, instead 
of eiv and av, ex. gr. ^oprjvai, (from ^opeco,) (pLXfj^evai, yor}}izvai (for yodv '2). 



^o The Doric koi(Ja becomes through contraction ivoa, not dlaa, which occurs only 
in the part. aor. 2. (\a/3oTcra,) where there is no contraction ; see Obs. V. 5. to § 103. 

^^ The omission of the iota subscriptum was formerly genei-al in the infin. of verbs 
in d(j),ex. gr. nixdv, jSodi/, ^fjv. It is but lately that the correct ortliography has 
again been generally ado])ted. See Buttm. Comp)lete Gr. Gr. § 105. Obs. 17. — 
Some gi-ammurians always omitted this iota subscriptiim in lengthened syllables ; 
bpdav, ondac. 

12 Consequently opriai mentioned in st Note to the last Obs. in § 106. and QriaQai, 
(see the Anom. 9du>,) belong hither. Compare also iOijrjro in the Anom. 9dofiai. 



VERBS. 



197 



Obs. 17. The Epic apoixfjievai for apovv is the only instance of this in verbs in 6a;. 

See a list of Contracted Verbs in the Appendix;, 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. 

§ 106. — Verbs in }xl. 

1. We begin the anomaly of the Greek verbs with what, from 
the termination of the first pers. pres. indie, is called the con- 
jugation in iiL, This does not include a great many verbs, 
like the two preceding conjugations, but only a small number of 
verbs, and parts of verbs, which in some essential points deviate 
from the numerous other verbs^ though connected by a common 
analogy. 

Ohs. 1. The verbs which are conjugated in Grammars as examples of this con- 
jugation, are pretty nearly the only ones which adopt this formation in all the parts 
where it is applicable ; whatever else belongs hither, consists merely in isolated 
parts of some anomalous or defective verbs, or of Epic forms. But even the verbs 
m m, which are in use, do not all agree among themselves in all their parts ; each 
verb must, on account of its peculiarities, be stated completely as an anomalous 
vei-b. 

2. All verbs in fii have a root, which, according to the usual 
formation, would end in w purum, (§ 28, 1.) and chiefly in £w, 
aw, ow, vb). Hence it is usual in grammar to refer the former 
more uncommon formation to the latter more usual one, and 
to say, for instance, that the verb TiO-ninL comes from a simpler 
form GEO. 

3. The peculiarity of the conjugation in jut is confined to 
these three tenses, 

the pres., imperf., and aor, 2. 
and consists chiefly in this, that the terminations of the in- 
flection, e<r. ^r. fi^v, re, v, fxm, are not appended by means of 
the connecting vowel, {pfxev, £r£, 01;, op.aL^) but immediately to 
the radical vowel of the verb itself, for instance, 

rlBe-jiev, 'lara-fiai, dido-TE, edeiKW-TE, Wr}-v. 
See Obs. 6, 7, 8. and § 110. 

Both kinds of contraction,' (that into rj, and that into ei and a,) which, in the com'se 
of the improvement of the language, became peculiar to some dialects, were un- 
questionably, like many other peculiarities, in general but fluctuating use in the oldest 
language. The form rj even continued in common use in some instances (as <^yv, 
&c.). Need we then woncTer at meeting in Epic poetry with many other forms, 
Avhich Avere retained for the sake of euphony 1 



198 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

4. To this peculiarity must be added some peculiar final syl- 
lables — 

JUL — ^ first per s. sing. pres. 

GL or GLv, — third per s. sing, of the same tense, 

Ql , second pey^s. sing, imper. 

But in the imper, of the aor. 2. act. some verbs have^ instead of 
di, a simple q, 9^g, dog, f'c (see riOr^iui, ^id(i)iuLi/ir]jLii, and compare 
(Txtg and cfipeg in the Anom. £;)^w and (ppid)). Moreover the infin. 
of those tenses always ends in vai, and the nomin. masc. of the 
part., not in v, but always in g, dropping the v, which lengthens 
the radical vowel in the usual way^ aq, slq, ovg, vg, (gen. vTogy) and 
this termination constantly has the accent, w^hich is the acute. 

5. The conj. and opt. make a contraction of the radical 
vowel of the verb with their own termination^ which contraction 
always has the accent. It is in the conjunctive, when the 
radical vowel is e or a, w and y], 

w, ijgy y, CifXiv, if\TZ, wcrt(v) : 
when the radical vowel is o, it constantly is w, 

w, Mg, (Jo, {ofXEv, CjTii, w(n{v). 
In the opt. it is a diphthong with t, to which riv is always joined 
in the act. 

TiO-eirjv, lGT'-aLr]v, did-OLtjv, 
See § 107. Obs. 3. 2. e^c— The verbs in u/.a most commonly 
form these two moods according to the usual conjugation in 

-V(i). 

6. Several short radical forms combine a redupl. with them, 
repeating the first consonant with an additional i before the 
radical verb, ex. gr. 

But when the radical verb begins with or, ttt, or an aspirated 
vowel, the l alone is prefixed with the spir. asper : 

STAO ^GTrifiL, I1TA12 'iTTTajbiai, 'EO 'Iriiixi. 
It is this which renders the aor. 2. possible in this conjugation, 
as it distinguishes itself from the imperf and from the pres. 
tenses of the other moods chiefly by omitting this redupl. 
(See § 96. Obs. 2.) ex. gr. tWyjiuii, imperf. iTiQr\v, aor. Wrjv. 

7. The radical vowel in its combination with the terminations 
of this conjugation always becomes long in the sing, indie, act. 
of the three tenses ; a and e always become »], (indie, pres. rfjuLi,) 
o becomes w, (indie, pres. ijjfm) and v becomes v (indie, pr. vfii). 
In the rest of the terminations it most usually occurs in its 



VERBS. 199 

original short form, £, a, o, v, ex. gr. riOr^ini, — TiOefXEv, t9E(jav, 
TiOivai, tiOeti, rWsjuat. Yet exceptions to these are the follow- 
ing ^er^o??^ and moods, which retain the long vowel, viz. 

1.) Dual and plur., with the infinit. and imperat., of aor. 2. 
of tarrijui [ex. gr. £o-r»//x£v, &c.) ; the syncop. aoi'ists 
follow the same inflection. See § 110. 
2.) The infinitives of the aor. 2. of SidojjULL and tWijiul (t»?/xt), 
which change £ into ei, o into ov : Oetvai, ^ovvai. 
For other exceptions, ex. gr. Kixnvai, diZviaaL, see the list of the 
Anom. 

8. The verbs in wjlu are a distinct class of the verbs in jui ; 
for the syllable vv does not belong to the pure root of the verb, 
but is in fact a lengthened form of it. Certain verbs annex 
to the root the terminations vvjull or vvoj, the latter of which is 
used as a collateral form in the present and imperf. of verbs 
ending in vvjui. The termination vvfit is annexed when the 
root terminates with a consonant, ex. gr. ^dKWjui, oiyvvjui; but 
vvvjuiL is annexed when it ends in a vowel, ex. gr. Kops-vvvfjH, 
before which termination the letter o is changed into w, ex. gr. 
(TTQwvvvixL, (For examples, see § 112, 14.) 

06s. 2. The termination of the second pers. pass, in the common conjugation, 
{y, ov,) being derived from eaai, eao, (see 06s. III. 1, 2, to § 103.) and the con- 
necting vowel being omitted in the conjugation in [it, it is simply aai, aro, in the 
verbs in fii, (exactly like the per/*, and plusq. pass, of the common conjugation,) 
Ti6e-(Tai, kriOi-ao, 'lara-aai, &c. But here, too, the contraction with the radical 
vowel is more or less used in some verbs, 

riOy, IriOov, (tara,) 'laru), for 'iaraaai, "laraao. See the Note to p. 204. 
and as the lonians, after rejecting the a, change the radical vowel a into f, (see 
below, § 107- 06s. 4.) they make of icrrao-at, {'[(XTsai,) 'iarr}. The contracted form 
{iOov, 'idov, &c.) is probably the only one in use in the aoi: 2. 

9. All the other tenses are formed according to the common 
conjugation from the radical verb without any redupl. : ex.gr, 
TL6r]ij.L, (0E12,) fut. Q{]aii). Some anomalous verbs of this kind 
have, however, peculiarities in these tenses, which must be kept 
distinct from the conjugation in jii. We shall first review the 
peculiarities common to several verbs. 

10. The two verbs "LarniJ-i and SiSw/it shorten the vowel also 
in those tenses of the pass, voice which belong to the common 
conjugation : 

Act. gt{]gw, perf, sarnKa, PASS. perf. earaiuLai, aor. £<jTa9r]v, 



200 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Both riOi^jui and Vr?/xt (§ 108. I.) do the same merely in the aor, 

pass, and in the fut., which is dependent on it : 
hW^v, (for keaOnv, from GEO,) 
lOdg, part. aor. 1. pass, (from 'EO.) 

They both change the radical vowel into ei in the perf. act. and 



rWeiKa, ridufiai, UKa, eijuiai. 

11. The three verbs TiOrjiuL, hjiii, di^wfxi, have a peculiar form 
for the aor. 1. in kq, 

which must be carefully distinguished from the perf . 

12. The verbs in vvfii or vvu/zt form all these tenses quite 
regular from the simple but disused^ present in w. Hence 
^£iKvvjuLi, from. AEIKO5 forms dEi^oj, l^d)(6r}v; Koplvvvjui from 
KOPEO forms Kopiaw, KiKopeaiuLaL, &c. 

Obs. 3. There are no verbs in tjjxl and w/it of three or more syllables without the 
redupl. in any of the principal dialects, excepting perhaps drmi, and some depo- 
nents in rinai, (for tjjiai,) afiai, and ofxai, (from 6w,) which must be looked for 
among the Anomalous Vei'bs, ex. gr. ^'iZ,r}fxai, Syvafxai, ovofiai. 

Obs. 4. The verbs in w/it are also anomalous as far as they belong to a class of 
verbs derived fi'om different themes. The termination vfxi or vvfii, Sec. is only a 
strengthening syllable of the pres. and imperf. The other tenses are formed of the 
simpler i-adical vei-b, in which this v or vv is also wanting, ex. gr. de'iKvvfii of 
AEIKQ, (TJ3svvvixL of SBEQ, and are therefore stated here as defective verbs. See 
§ 112, 14. There are but a few parts of a few anomalous verbs, which conform, 
beside these, to the conjugation in v[xl. To know instantly when the v is long or 
short, we need only to compare Votjjjui : deiKW/jii is long like 'i(TTr][jLi, dunvvfiiv 
short like 'iarayLev, aor. 2. (see the Anom. dvu),) 'iSvjxiv is long like eanjfxev, &c. 

Obs. 5. All verbs in /it increase their anomaly by having in the ^;vys. and imperf. 
persons and moods which desert the conjugation in fii, and follow, as contracted, 
the conjugation of tw, dio, dw, retaining, however, the redupl. (as if the verb, for 
instance, were TI9EQ); and those in ujut, that of vu). In the mean time they must 
be conjugated entirely in /«i, to have a distinct idea of their analogy, and the Notes 
will point out where the simple form predominates in the common language. 
Wherever this is not done, it may be assumed that the formation from TI9EQ 
occurs little or not at all, as is the case with the first per s. sing. pres. ui. The con- 
jugation in [XL belongs, on the whole, to the strictest Atticism. 

Obs. 6. We subjoin a few general remarks. There are in many languages two 
terminations in the conjugation of verbs, one with a connecting vowel, the other 
without it : for instance, in German du lebest, du lebst, in English thou drhikest, 
drinkst. Thei'e is no absolutely general principle by Avhich it can be ascertained 
which of tlie two ways is the older ; but it is more natural, if there be no prepon- 
derating analogy for the contrary, to consider the longer form grammatically as the 
basis, and the short one as a syncopated form of the long one. In this sense the 
conjugation in jUt, by virtue of the peculiarity stated above, (3.) is unquestionably a 
syncope of the common conjugation, and we have no right to assume that the 
fuller form had anciently prevailed and been abbreviated. 



I 



VERBS. 201 

Ohs. 7. The syncopated form is the most natural when else two vowels would meet 
in pronunciation. Whilst the fuller form was preferred in Greek in the most con- 
siderable number of verbs, and became gradually contracted, (^tXso-jUtf ^i\ov[Xiv,) 
the syncopated form maintained itself in some others {Qk-}uv). This syncope, how- 
ever, could not have taken place in those terminations of the common conjugation 
which consist of only one vowel, (01-w, Qk-u, 9s-e,) and it is exactly in these instances 
that another form of terminations /ii, at, 9i, maintained itself, by which a consonant 
was now immediately appended to the radical vowel. To this was added the 
lengthening of this vowel, and thus arose, for instance, out of the root 0£ — the 
forms OT]-fii, lBr}-v, Oe-fxsv, Oa-Oi, &c. The redupl. probably served only to 
strengthen such short verbs in the jjr<?s. ,- and thus originated (according to § 96. 
Ohs. 2. and 4.) a simpler form {eOtjv) for the ao7'., and a longer one for the ^9res. 
and imperf. {riOTjjxi, krL97]v). See an anomalous redupl. in the Anom. ovivrjut. 

Obs. 8. Hence it appears that the formation of the essential particulars of the 
verbs in /xi might just as well have taken place in parts of any other verb, and it is 
therefore quite superfluous to assume a ]}ec\\\i?L,v first pers. j)yes. in m for every tense 
or form in which that kind of inflection is found. We shall see below, § 110, 10, 
p)erfects, of Avhich the plural is formed in that manner, and {ibid. 6.) aor. 2. of this 
kind in verbs which have either the usual form in the pres. {^lou), 5vu), — ao7\ 2. 
ei5i(D}', eSvv,) or a very deviating one (/3aiVcj, yiyvwtTKw, — aor. 2. e(5T]v, 'iyvojv). 
The followmg p)aradigms of the few complete verbs in /xt serve at the same time for 
most of the anomalous forms of this kind, to which we shall occasionally refer. 

Obs. 9. The deviating moods and participles of this conjugation will yet be found 
on examination to correspond to the analogous ones of the common conjugation, 
with the requisite modifications. Hence there is no occasion, when similar moods 
occur, to presuppose old pres. tenses in fit, as about the ao7'. pass. {sTv(p9T]v, 
TV(l>9sir]v, TV(p9r]vai, &c. see above § 100. Obs. 10.) and isolated Epic forms, like 
(poprivai, (pi'Ki]^evai (§ 105. Obs. 16). 

Obs. 10. Some Doric dialects, however, really had the ftrst pers. pres. of many 
verbs in fii instead of cj, ex. gr. opr]iJ.i, (piXrjiii, for b^du), (piXkio, and the third pers. 
sing, ai, ex. gr. Kpivqai for kqivsl. Hesiod has a'lvtjfii, and grammarians also rank 
in this class some Homeric forms, especially the tJiird p)ers. rjcn, ex. gr. II. £. 6. 
7raix<paivr]cn, i. 323. 7rpo06p?jo-i^, and the second pers. pass, ogrjai, {Od. ^. 343.) as of 
opr][xai, (for -onai,) of opa'w, rjni^. 



§ 107. — Paradigms of the Conjugation in jui. 
Act. — Pres, 



To put, I to place \ 
(of e£0,) I (of 2TAQJ 



to give, 
(of A0£2, 



to shoio, 

(of ^^LKVVli)^ 



' But this form occurs in Homer only after a pronoun relative (ocrrf, wq, &e.) : 
hence we ought to write rjui, (as is now done in most of the passages,) and consider 
it as a free use of the conjunctive. 

2 Some only of the old grammarians accent the word in this way, oprjai : others 
Mrite oprjai, and then it is nothing but opdeai contracted according to § 105. Obs. 
15. into 77 for a, which is preferred here for the sake of euphony. Homer having 
every where else the i^egular opdrai, opdro, &c. 

^ See about the anomalous signification of this verb the Obs. II. 



202 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



Indie, 










Sing. 


TiOniiL^ 


KJTYJ jUl, 


^[^(DlJll, 


CElKVVIULt, 




TiOrjc, 


'i(jTr}(:, 


^iSwQ, 


CEiKvyg, 




TiOr]cn{v), 


'L(JTr}<Tl{v), 


^iSu)GL{v), 


CEiKVV(7l{v), 


Dual, 


— 


— 





— 




tW^tov, 


'icTTarov, 


dtdoTOv, 


CElKVVTOVy 




tWetov, 


"iaraTOv, 


didoTov, 


^eUvvtov, 


Plur. 


TiOcjueVf 


'IdTaiLlEV, 


^L^OILIEV, 


CElKWIJlEVj 




TiOsTe, 


'IcTTarE, 


Sl^OTE, 


EEiKvvre, 




TLdia(Ji[v) 


LCTTaai[v), 


ci^6a(n{v) 


CELKVVaaL{v) 




or Tiduai, 




or dicovai, 


or ^EiKvvai 






Observation I. 





1. The tJiird pers. pi. in •aai{v) is the only one employed by the best Attic 
■writers ; in old Grammars it is called Ionic, merely because it was erroneously 
considered as a resolved form : far from being Ionic, we find the circumflexed form 
alone in Herod. tiQCkji, Sidovai, deiKvvai, and this crept into the common language, 
but in later times. 

2. The contracted form riOdg, lar^g, &c. (§ 106. 06s. 5.) is the least used in the 
p)-es. by the Attics. Herod, has the third pers. ^lOoT, from diduJiii. 



Infin. 



Part. 



Conj. 
Sing. 



Dual, 
Plur. 



TiOivaiy 



laravaif 



tSoi 



)ElKVVVai, 



tlOeIq, {ivTOQ,y i<JTag,{dvTog,)\ didovgi{6vTog)dEiKVvg,{vvTog) 
laTaaa^ cidovaa, 

1 icrrav, \ di^ovy 



TLUELda 

tiOev, 



CEiKwaa, 

dElKVVV. 



riOyg, 



— rjTOV, r]rov, 

CJ/ULEV, rjTEi liXJLi 



KJTU), 

i<TT)jg, 

— fjrov, riTOv, 
wfiEv, r]TE, Cjcfl, 



SL^togy 
etc to, 

(i)rOV,(i)TOV, 

(jjfXEV, WTEj (.0(71, 



ofSf 



See below, Obs. III. about these conj. 

Opt. 
Sing. 

Dual. 

Plur. 



Tl9Eir]V, 


LGTair]v, 


SLSo(r]v, 


TiOEirjg, 


LGTairig, 


diBoLY^g, 


tiOeiyi, 


IdTairj, 


SidoiY], 


riOEi-nrov, 


larairiTOV, 


^LdoLYJTOV, 


riOEiiiTr}v, 


l(yTan]Ti^v, 


didoL{]Trjv, 


TlOEirjjUlEV} 


i(Trair}iuEV, 


dLBoir]iJ.Ev, 


tl6eii]TE, 


larairjTE, 


^iSoir]TE, 


{Ti6ELr}(7aVy) 


{i(jTair}(Tav,) 


{^idoirjaav,) 



0£dE 



VERBS. 



303 



3. We also meet with didc^rjv, but this is an incorrect spelling of the later writers, 



as well as in the 



>)jV. 



4. This is the peculiar opt. of the verbs in [xi, to which the aoi\ pass, of the com- 
mon conjugation corresponds, and this, too, has a very usual abbreviated foi'm for 
the dual and pi, which is used almost exclusively for the third pers. only. 



Dual, 
Plur. 


TldELTOV, 

tiOeitt^Vs 
tlQeXp-ev, 
tiOeTte, 
tlOeIev, 


LGTOLTOV, 

l(JTaiTl]V, 

LGTolfXEV, 

LGToirE, 

laTOLEV, 


^idolrov, 
dLSoirriv, 
didol/jiEv, 

^lSoTts, 

SldoTEV. 


V. 

TiOeri, 
irw, &c. 


aT(ji). 


&C. 


^idoOi, 

6t(x), &c. 


SeikvvOi, comm. 

SeIKVV, VTd), &C, 


TLOirti) 


(jav or 

T(JJV, 


IdTarw 

LGTaV 


aav or 

Tlx)V, 


di^OTiotrav or 

Sl^OVTWV, 


dEiKvvTwaav or 

dElKVVVTUJV. 



Imper. 



SpL 



5, See about riOeri instead of -6i, § 17, 6, 4. The second pers. sing, in 6i is not 
much used ; the abbreviated form with lengthened vowel is preferred, 

SiSov I deiKVV. 



Imperf. 
Sing. 

Dual, 

Plur. 



rlOei 
ETlOrjV, 

ETiOrig, 
ETiOr], 

etlOetov, 

etiOettjv, 

etlQejiev, 

etiOete, 

ETidEorav, 



KTTT] 



l(JT)]V, 
'[(TTaTOV, 

l(jTa.Ty]v, 
^arafiEV, 
Igtute, 
^'iGTaaav, 



I'^i'^wv, 
E^idujg, 
e^lSu), 

E^i^OTOV, 
iSl^OTipj, 
E^l^OfJLEV, 

eEiSote, 
E^i^oaav^ 



eBeikvvv, 

ESElKVVg, 

eSeikvv, 

EdElKVVTOV, 
E^ElKVVTr]V, 

eSeikw/uIev, 

e^eikvvte, 

IdeiKVVdav. 



6. Excepting 'i(jtt)ixi, the sing, of this tense is most usually after the contracted 
conjugation and the form -voj : 



kriOovv, £iQ, ti \ Widow, ovg, ov \ kdeiKwov, eg, e{v). 



Perf. 
Plusq. 



TiOEiKa, 
eteOeikelv, 



EGTTJKa, 

e(jt{]kelv or 

EI(Tt{]KEIV, 



E^Ed 



WKa. 



WKEIV, 



of AEIKG. 



7. With respect to 'iarrjuL we must notice in this perf. and plusq. 

1.) The augment; since, contrary to the other verbs, (see § 76, 5.) the s, 

which is here instead of the redupl., has the spiritus asper, and i\\e plusq. 

frequently has its augment incx'eased by the temporal augment ti. 
2.) The more usual abbreviated forms 'iarafJiev, &c., instead of the regular 

conjugation. (See below, Obs. II.) 
3.) The deviating signification, {ibid.) 



FUT. 
AOR. 1. 



di]a(jj, 
Wr]Ka, 



(TTl]<T(x), 

EGTYjaa, 



idi 



of AEIKQ. 



204 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



8. This irregular aoi'. in Ka is chiefly used by good writers in the sing. : the Attics 
generally preferred the aor. 2. for the first and second pers. pi. There are neither 
moods nor ijarticlples made of the form in ku, except the part, of the middle voice, 
■which -with its indie, is, however, confined to the dialects. See below the Medium. 



wanting. 



Inaic. 




Jior, '^. 




Sing. 


Wl]V, 


iarriv, 


BC(i)V, 




like the 


earrjg, 


like the 




imperf. 


E(TTr], 


imperf. 


Dual, 




l(7T{]Tr]V, 




Plur. 












l(jTr](jav, 





9. The aor. 2. 'e<JTr]v deviates from the analogy of the imperf. and of the verbs in 
jttt in general, (§ 106, 7-) by its long vowel in the dual and pi. The.3pers.pl, 
tarriaav is in sound exactly like the 3 pers. pi. aor. 1., so that the sense must be 
determined from the context. (See below, Ohs. II.) 

10. The sing, indie, act. aor. 2. 'iQriv and Uu)v has not continued in use. But in 
the other parts of the verb it is used either exclusively or preferably. {Ohs. I. 8.) 

11. Compare the aor. 2. of some anomalous verbs below, § 110, 6. 



Inf 
Part. 
Conj. 
Opt. 


Odvai, 

Odg, 6eL(Ta, Olv, 

6w, 6yg, &c. 


(JTYIVaL, 

(JTag, araaa, arav, 
ario, aryg, &C. 
aTairiv, 


dovvai, 

SovCj ^ovaa, So v. 

^10, dwg, Sc^, &c 




The conj. and opt 


are conjugated lik 


e the pres. 


Imper. 


mn,) eig, 
Oirw, 


aTTiOi, 
arriTW, 


{^69i,) dbg, 

^6t(jJ, 




Oirov, (jjv, 


aTr]Tov, rwvj 


ooroy, T(i)V, 




Oirs, Twaav or 


arrtre, rwaav or 


COTS, Ttjjaav or 




QLVTUJV, 


aravTdJv, 


covrwv. 



12. The case is the same with the conj. and opf. as what we remarked of these 
moods in the pres. 

13. The monosyllabic imper. 6eg, dbg, (106, 4.) does not throw the accent further 
back in composition than on the penultiraa ; ex. gr. TrepiOeQ, cLTrSdog. 

14. The imper. arridi is sometimes abbreviated in compounds in this manner : 
TTopaora. The same is done with (irjdi. (See tlie Anom. [3aivo).) 



Indie. 




Pass. — Pres. 






Sing. 


TiO^fiai, 


'laTafjiai, 


^iSojULai, 


^dKvvfiai, 




TiOeaai, poet. 


'iaraaai, or 


didoaai. 


dtlKWl, 




ridy\ 


Ura, 








TiOaraL, 


'laTarai, 


Sidorai, 


SeiKvvrai, 



2 The abbreviations of the forms in -effai, -aaai, into -y, -q., are partly question- 
able, partly poetical. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 107, 8. 







VERBS. 




Wd 


Dual, 


TiQeiLLzOov, 


laTafiEOov, 


^L^ofxeOov, 


^ElKVVflEOoV, 




TiOeaOov, 


^[(TTaaOov, 


^I^ogOov, 


SElKVVGOoVi 




TiOeaOov, 


'laracrOov, 


^l^ogOov, 


^eikvvgOov, 


Plur. 


riOeiuLeOa, 


LGTCLflEQa, 


^LBojULeOa, 


dElKVVjLLEOa, 




rWeaeE, 


iaraaOs, 


^(^ogOe, 


^eikvvgOe, 




TiOevrai, 


^LGTavrai, 


Bl^ovTai, 


dElKVVVTai, 


Infin. 


TiO^aOai, 


'[(jraaOai, 


di^OGOai, 


dELKVVGOai, 


Partic. 


TiOifievog, 


IdTafiEvog, 


diBoiuiEvog, 


^ElKVVIuLEVOg^ 


Conj. 








Sing. 


tiOmjuui, 


LaTu)fiai, 


^fow^m. 


of 




rtOfi, 


i(7TJj, 


didco. 


CElKVV(Ji). 




TiOriTai, 


LdTrirai, 


SiEwrm, 




Dual, 


TlO(i)ILieOoV, 


iGT<l)p.Edov, 


SLdlOflEOov, 






TiOrjcrOov, 


IcTTrjdOoVf 


^l^CogOov, 






TiOriaOov, 


Io-tyigOov, 


^i^wgOov, 




Plur. 


TLdwfi^da, 


IdTiofitOa, 


El^MIHEda, 






TiOrjdOe, 


<(7rf^(T^£, 


CidwGOE, 






TiOwvTai, 


L(JTa)VTaL, 


CL^iovTai, 




See below the Ob 


s. III. about th 


3 deviating accentuation o 


this conj\ 








Opt. 








Sing. 


Tiddfiriv, 


laraijuriv, 


di^oijui]v, 


of^ 




tlOeXo, 


Icrralo, 


^iSoXo, 


Selkvvm, 




tiOelto, 


iGTaIro, 


ElSoilto, 




Dual, 


TLOeijueOov, 


laTaijiSov, 


Si^oijueOov, 






tiOelcjOov, 


laTaTaOov, 


di^o^GOov, 






TL6da0t]v, 


[(TTaidOriv, 


CL^OlGdriV, 




Plur. 


TiOd/UEda, 


iCTTaijiEda, 


^iSQljUEOa, 






tlOelctOe, 


laTOLcrOe, 


^lSoIgOe, 






tSuvto^ 


IdTOlVTO, 


dldoXvTO, 




See below Obs. I 


II. about the A 


ttic opt. ridoL 


TO, tGTaiTO, Sl- 


^OlTO, &c. 








Imper. 


tlOecto, or 


tdracTO, or 


diSoGo, or 


CEIKVVGO, 




tlOov, 


^LCTTO), 


^f^OU, 






TidiaQu), &c. 


laraaOw^ &C, 


^l^ogOw, &C. 


dElKVVGOiO, &C 


Imperf. 








Sing. 


trL0bfl7]V, 


LGTafir]v, 


EBidoniriv, 


E^ElKVVfir]Vi 




hWeao, or 


^araGO, or larvj, 


Edi^oGo, or 


I^EIKVVGO^ 




IrWoVf 




ECICOV, 






ItlOeto, 


'iGTaro, 


E^l<^OTO, 


E^EIKVVTO, 


Dual, 


IriOifieOov, 


laTajUEOov, 


EdLdojUiEOov, 


e^eikvvjueOov^ 




hWecrOov, 


"iGTaaQov, 


e^iSogOov, 


e^eikvvgOov, 




Itl9e(j9})v, 


iGTaGOriv, 


ECl^OGOr^V, 


EdElKVVG6r]V, 



206 



A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



Plur. 









^BidovTO, 






Perf. 
Plusq. 



rWei/uLai, 
riOeKjaL, &c. 



of AEIKO. 



Earacyai.&LC. 

15. The following moods of the perf. are easily formed, viz. ijijln. Tt0eiG9ai,Sed6(J- 
9ai, jMrt. TsOeifxsvog, imper. saTacro, &c. but the conj. and opt. are never met with. 



SidoGai, &c. 



FUT. 1. 
AOR. 1. 



Tao}](TOiJLai3 






coOiiorojmai} 



of AEIKQ. 



16. The syllable re in krsOijv, Ts9i'](roixai, must not be mistaken for a reduplicative 
augment ; it is the radical syllable 0e which is changed, because of the 6 in the ter- 
mination, according to § 18. These words stand for WsOijv, OsQqaoixai. 

Fat. 2. and 3. and Aor, 2. are wanting ^ 
Medium. 



Fut. 1. 
Aor. 1. 



eOr]Kdjur]Vf 



C(x)(TOIiiaL.) 



of AEIKO. 



(TT1](J0jJ,aLy 

saTrjadjiLriVy hdiOKafirjVj 
17. The aor. sOr]KdfJt.rjv, edojicdfit^p, and their ^ari. are known only to the Ionic and 
Doric dialects ; the other vioods do not occur. Attic pj-ose employs merely the aor. 
2. of the middle voice of these verbs. Compare the Obs. to the aor. act. But the 
aor. 1. tcrrrjadiirjv is much in use. See below Obs. II. 

Indie. Aor. 2. 



{We(TO,) Wov, 
and so on, 



tGTafnf]Vf 



and so on. 



wanting. 



Inf. 

Part. 

CONJ. 

Opt. 
Imper. 



is conjugated after the imperf.pass. 



dlaOai, 
OajusvoQ, 

{9i(TO,) Oov. 



^, 



doGOai, 
dojiievogy 

{^6(JOi) Sou. 

III. about the 



(TTCLGOaij 

GTOiJlEVOQ, 

GT^JjULai, 

GTaifxriv, 
ardao, gtCj. 

18. All these are conjugated after the p7:es. pass. See below, 
Attic forms of the opt. and conj. {TrpoaQoiro, TrpoaOMfiai, &c.). 

19. The i7ijin. keeps the accent even in composition, diroOkaQai, dirodocrOai. The 
imper. retains the accent in the sing, only when the joreposition is but of one syl- 
lable; ex.gr. TrpoaOov, Trpoadov, d(pov (of 'it]fii): when the prep, has two syllables, 
the accent is removed on it, ex. gr. irtpioov, dTTodov. In the pi. the accent always 
is on the prep. eTriOecrOe, TvpoSoaOs, d(pe(T9s. 

20. The aor. 2. vied, of iotj^jiu docs not occur : it is stated here for the sake of 
analogy for other verbs, ex.gr. tirrdixrjv of iVrajuai {Anom. TrkroiJiai). 



^ The aor. 2. snidfut. 2. j^ciss. are not possible in this formation, (except that some 
verbs in vv/xi can form them of the radical verb, Anom. ^cwyvv/xt,) and there is no 
fut. 3. of these verbs occurring ; yet the anomalous /m«. coTJj^ojuat {Obs. II. 4.) may 
be considered as such. 



VERBS. 207 



Verbal Adjectives 

Oeriog, \ (jrariog, 
Oerog, | (jraTog, 



f^l"*^' I of AEIKQ. 
coro 



II. — Observations to 'iffrtjfii. 

1. The verb 'ia-rniL is divided between the transitive signif. to ijJace, and the iu- 
trans. to stand (§ 1 13, 2). In the act. voice, tlie tenses M'hich denote to place are, 

thejore-^'. and imperf. 'lan^fii, 'ifxrrjv, fat. urrjcru), aor. 1. Icrrrycra : 
those wliich denote to stand, are, 

the perf. and plusq. s(Trt]Ka, k<JTi]Kiiv, aor. laTr]v. 
The pass, throughout means to he placed ; but the pres. and imperf, "laTaiiai, -jctrji-, 
as middle voice, together with the fut. med. OTrjaofiai, signify sometimes fopZac€ one's 
self, and sometimes to put tip (to erect, for instance, a monument). The aor. 1. med. 
always has the latter signif. 

2. The perf. ad. from its signif. is here not a j^e//., but a p>res. tense, and the 
plusq. of course an imperf. (§ 113. Obs. 11.) 

'iarrjica, I stand ; 

k<j-i]Kuv, I stood ; ecrrrjKihg, standing, &.C. * 

3. In the dual and pi., and in the collateral moods, there is generally an abbre- 
viated form of the 2:}erf. and phisq., which becomes the pres. tense in /.a : this form 
being also peculiar to other verbs, is explained § 110, and is stated here merely to 
complete the verb 'icfrtjfii. 

Perf. plur. sardfiev, 'iaraTt, karaciiv), 
dual, 'iararov, 

plusq. plur. £(rrafiiv, eorare, sa-acrav, 
dual, saraTov, kffTCLTrjv, 

conj. kcTTut, yc, y, &.C. opt. earaiijVf 

imper. saTccQi, kaTario, Sec. 

infin. kaTCLvai, 

part. {karatljQ,) e<jru)Q, earOJaa, earbg^, gen. Icrrajrog, Ion, effrsuQ, wtoq, 
so that this perf . and plusq. have assumed in most of their forms the formation and 
signif. of both the pres. and the imjyerf. 

4. It is on account of this signif. of the pres. (and because the fat. (j-{]auj means 
I shall place, Grricjonai, shall place myself,) that 'i<y-i]Ka, I stand, has produced a 
peculiar anomalous 

fut. k(r-i)^ix} or h-r]^ofiai, I shall stand. 
with which you may compare a similar fut. in the Anom. 6vr](TK(i). 

5. But there is also for the transitive signif. a 

perf. 'iaTCLKU, I hate placed, ^ 

which belongs, however, to a later period. The old Attics use, in both significa- 
tions, instead of the ji>gr/". the two aor. or a circumlocution. (See § 97- Obs. 6.) 

6. There is in some editions of Homer the syncopated form of the plusq. 3 pers. 
pi. saracrav in both the transitive and the intrans. signif. ; but the correct reading 
seems to be saracrav as usual in the sense of the imperf. they were standing, and 

* But in some compounds, of which the middle voice has the intrans. signif., the 
perf. act. may be conceived as a real perf in English, ex. gr. aviarr-jyn, I raise up, 
dviaraixai, I rise, stand up, dvscrtjKa, 1 have risen, stand. From this /)<??/. denoting 
the pres. time the corrupt Greek has formed a peculiar pre?, tense; hence 1 Corinth. 
16, 13, (jrr]KST(, stand. 

^ See about the irregular shortening of the neuter kcTTog, in Buttm. Complete 
Gr. Gr., the verb 'iarrjfii in the List of Verbs. 



208 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

taraaav abbreviated for iartjtrav, (of the aor. 1. 'i(rrr]<ra,) as aor. they placed, {Od. <r. 
307.) which, hke other aor., miglit be used in tlie sense of the plusq. they had placed 
{II. fi. 56). Compare a similar abbreviation fTrpecre in the Anom. 7rifX7rpr]fii. 

7. There is also an Homeric abbreviation, sarrjTe, you stand, {II. d. 243. 246.) for 
karl]KaTt or 'iaraTE. 

III. — Ohs. on the Conj, and Opt. 

1 . The conj. and opt. of the verbs in [xi have always in their regular formation 
the accent on the termination, whilst these moods in the common conjugation con- 
stantly throw the accent, whenever the termination allows it, on the preceduig 
syllable {rvTrryQ, ruTrrwjUsv, tvtttoiixi, rvTrroji'Tai, &c.). Thus riOoJ, diSuiixsv, 

TldtitV, TldtlvTO, &c. 

2. This accent arises from the circumstance that the syncope, which is essential 
in the verbs in fii, cannot well take place in these moods ; for their characteristic is 
not in the terminations juev, re, [lai, Sec, which they have in common with the 
indie, but precisely in the vowel which precedes these terminations. This they 
cannot reject, but combine it with the vowel of the radical verb, and thus make it 
a long vowel, which, in conformity to the rule, takes the accentuation of the con- 
traction (§ 28. Obs. 9). 

3. This combination difFei's, however, from the usual contraction of the same 
moods in the verbs in dco, ew, voj. The difference of the opt. in the two conjugations 
is obvious. In the conjunctive oi contracted verbs the vowels erj, aij, or}, vr], coalesce 
in various ways ; the conjunctive of the conjugation in jut is more simple. Verbs 
having 17 in the indie. {riQiqui, 'icrTrjfJLi,) retain also throughout this r] and the y of 
the common conjunctive ; but those in wjui have w and ^ instead of rj and y (see 
the pa racZi^ms). The conjunctive tcrra^, tora, which is also stated, belongs to the 
form larcut), and is neither so good, nor so frequent, § 106. Ohs. 5. See Obs. IV. about 
the Ionic I'esolution or lengthening of these forms. 

4. The accentuation of the conjugation in /xi does not differ from that of the 
usual barytone verbs ; but the wish to make these moods conformable to analogy 
with regard to the accent, occasioned deviations in the p)ass. voice, which were more 
or less used in some verbs, and this induced us to state the regular form for uni- 
formity's sake, and to render the deviations more sensible. In the two verbs 
riOrjui and 'irjixi, (§ 108.) the Attics drop the radical vowel, and take the termina- 
tions of these two moods from the common conjugation, throwing the accent back 
wherever it can be done, so that these forms look exactly as if they were made of 
the iiidic. in ofjiai. The difference in the conjunctive is simply in the accent : 

riObiixat for riOaifxai, 

aor. 2. med. TrpoaOrjrai, Trporjrai, &c. 
but the opt. has the additional diphthong 01-, ex.gr. 
% TiOoiro, TrepiOoLVTO, TrpooiaQe. 

(Compare below KaQrjjxai in rjjxai, and fxs[xvr]iJ.ai in [xinvrjcFiccj.) 

5. It is only the opt. of 'hrafxaL, which, preserving the regular diphthongs, takes 
this accentuation in all Greek writers, 

'icrraio, 'iaTairo, toratcrOe, 'iaraivTo, 
but the conj. always is larojfjiai, avvLcrrfJTai, &c. These two moods in didonai are, 
however, sometimes met with accented in the following way, which passes for an 
Atticism, 

conj. Sidojrai, opt. aTTodoiVTo^. 

° Fischer on Weller, 2. 469, 470. 472. 484, 485, has collected instances even of 
Ionic writers, but they are far from being sufficient, and this Atticism is in general 
So fluctuating, that there is yet much room for further inquiries. 



VERBS. 209 

In all the other verbs which are conjugated like 'iarafxai and didofxai, these two 
moods always are jyroparoxytona, ex. gr. dvvojfiai, dvvairo, ovairo, iTriffTrjTai, from 
dvvaixai, ovivafiai, sTricrrafiai (see the Anom.)', ovoito, from the anomalous ovofxai 
(with the radical o). We also find in the verbs in afiai, as in TiOifxai, instances of 
their going over to the form oi{xr]v : see the Anom. [xapvajxat and Kpsfxafiai. 

6. The verbs in vfii usually form these two mooc?s from vu) {csiKvvyQ,5HKvvoini) : 
yet there are instances showing that they also followed the analogy of the others 
by taking merely v instead of the double vowel : opt. daivvro, II. (o. 665. irr]yvvTO, 
Plato Phcedr. extr.; conj. 3 pers. sing. (TKedavvvai, (according to the old form tvtt- 
Tyai, TiBigai,) ibid. p. 77. d."^ 

IV. — Dialects. 

1. Much of what has been stated respecting the different dialects in the commor 
conjugation is also applicable here ; ex. gr. the iteratives in cfkov, which always have 
the radical vowel short before this termination, ex. gr. 

imperf. rlBiaKov, dido(TKov, de'iKwcricov, 

aor. 2. ardaicov, doaicov, 
and the injin. TiO'sjxev, l(rrdnsv, laTdynvai, (for ridkvai, loravai,) Os/xev, Okjievai, 
doixsvai, (for Oslvai, dovvai,) <Trr}[j,evai for (jrrjvai, &c. ; and further the Ionic 
termination of the 3 pers. pi. in arai, aro, ex. gr. TiOsarai for TiOevrat, l8id6aTOf 
&c. That the Dorians have a instead of rj in verbs whose radical is a, is a matter 
of course, 'iorrdfxi, crrdvai. 

2. Epic poets ,for the sake of the metre use the infin. TLBrjfievai, part. pass. 
TiOfjixtvoQ, and didovvai for didovai, or retain the redupl. where it is not usual, 
ex. gr. didojau). 

3. In the verbs in jy/ii of aw the lonians are fond of changing the a before 
vowels into e, ex. gr. iarsaei (for tcrraacri, commonly torao-i). Compare above 
§ 105. Obs. 8. Hence they say in the 3 pers. pi. pass. laTsarai, (instead of 
lardaTai,) for "laravTai, Obs. 1. 

4. The Ionic omission of the <t in the terminations cat and ao {Obs. III. to 
§ 103.) occurs somewhat less frequently here : Herod. kTriarsai, (for -aai,) from 
iTTidTanai, kTriaracrai, Hom. Qko for B'sao, [xdpvao for [xdpvacro, Saivvo for lda'ivv(TO. 

5. The Dorians instead of ci have ti, in the sing. tiOt^ti for TiOrjai, and in the pi. 
restoring the j/, (compare 06s. V. 4. to § 103.) tiBsvtij i(TTdvTi, didovri, for -eicri, 
dai, ovffi. 

6. The Dorians and Epic poets cut off asyllable of the 3 pers. pi. of the imperf. 
and aor. 2. act. in aav, and use merely the v with a short or shortened radical 
vowel before it ; consequently instead of ecrav — ev, ex. gr. 

'irtOtv for kridtaav, 
instead of aaav — av, ex. gr. 

ifdv for 'iipaaav, (see (prjfii,) 

eardv, (Sdv, for tarriaav, 'e(3r](Tav, 
instead of offav, vaav, — ov, vv, ex. gr. 

idov, edvv, for ido<Tav, l^vaav. 

7. The lonians have instead of ItWtjv — eriOia for the 1 pers. sing, of the imperf. 

8. As the conjunctive of this conjugation (according to Obs. III. 2, 3.) is formed 
by a kind of contraction, it is resolved in the Ionic dialect into the accented radical 
vowel pi-efixed to the usual termination of the coiijunctive in the following manner : 

7 See below § 110, 6. ((pvrjv,) and compare i6if?. 7- (pOifxrjv. The accentuation, 
which we have adopted above for the jxiss. form daivvTO, 7rr)yvvTo, is grounded on 
the analogy of the instances stated in the preceding 06s. Compare above XkXvro, 
§ 98. 06s. 9. 



210 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

a.) Verbs with the radical vowel e and a use alike the e as radical vowel, 
(Obs. 3.) tlms, 
for Ti9a), yg, &c. wfiai, &c. — TiOeu), riOsyg, riQsrjve, TiOsujcn, TiOkoifiai, &c., 

and for QS), 9yg, &c. — Oeej, 6'sygy Okwixai, 
for i(JTu>, CTO), <TTyg, &c. — icrrstj, IcrTsyg, crsai, crTsyg, crriwfisv, &c. 
b.) Verbs with the radical vowel o make it w throughout ; thus for didoj, ^w, 
^^1^, &c. — diSuxi), diooj, Scjyg, Sac. 

9. The Epic poets also resolve like the lonians, but can do it in two different 
ways according to the exigency of the metre : 

a.) They lengthen the e. This, according to the general principles, should be 
done only by si, and thus they have Odo), Otiyg, OeiiofjiEv, &c. for OeJ, &c., 
and areio) for ario. But where the vowel is i], they may either lengthen or 
double it, (§ 28. 06s. 3.) so that there is again an r] instead of e. This is 
commonly done in verbs with the radical vowel a : hence they have for 
(TTw, (TT^g, (Try, &c. oTf (w, (TTrjyg, (Trr]y, but with respect to the radical 
vowel f the usage is fluctuating, and we mfeet with both Oeiyg, 9iiy, Otirjre, 
and Orjyg, Qrjy ^. 
b.) They shorten the characteinstic vowel of the conjunctive, (according to 
§ 103. Obs. V. 15.) but in general only when they lengthen the radical 
vowel ; thus, 

Oeiofxai, (rreiofjisvy for Oewfxai, (jTscjuev, 
(TTrjerov, for {(rrrJTOv,) (Trrjrjrov, 
dojofxev, for dwufisv. 

10. As the Epic poets make the 3 pers. sing, of all conjunctives in ai, (see above, 
§ 103. Obs. V. 13.) there arise here forms which must carefully be distinguished 
partly from the indie, and partly from the 3 pers. pi., ex. gr, iGryai for lary, d<^Gi 
for d(^. 

11. The opt. is not resolved, except that the lonians say Oeoinriv for 6siiiT]v, as if 
of GEQ. 

§ lOS.— Verbs in fii from 'EQ, 'EQ, 'm. 

There are among the rest of the Anomalous verbs in fii some 
little verbs, of which the root is partly 'EQ, partly ^EQ, and 
'IQ, and which consequently may easily be mistaken one for 
the other, especially in compounds, when the spiritus is lost in 
part ; ex. gr. Trpoauvai may come from hvql and avat, whilst in 
a(pHvaL and airuvaL the spiritus may be recognised, but not in 
Ionic writers, who do not aspirate the consonant in these cases. 
The radical form 'EO has three principal significations : 1.) to 
send, 2.) place, and 3.) clothe, put on. 'EO signifies to be ; and 
'IQ to go. 

I. "IrifiL, ^ to send, throw,' from 'E12. 

1. This verb may throughout be compared with rWrjfii, from 

* The old grammarians do not agree on this point ; hence we meet with both 
readings in the best editions, and also with a third one, which omits the iota sub- 
scrip)tum in the 2 and 3 pers. (Oeirjg, Oeirj,) and thus completely assimilates them to 
the opt. But this reading does not appear well founded, and seems to rest only on 
the opinion that the t had passed over to the preceding vowel {Osy, Qsiri). See 
Obs. V. 14. to § 103, and connect with the contents of the 06s. 8, 9. what has been 
there stated respecting the conj. aor. jyass. 



VERBS. 211 

which it differs but Httle. The t (according to § 106, 6.) suppHes 
the redupl. ; in the Attic language it is long. Whenever the 
short radical vowel e is the initial, it may take the augment, 
being changed into u (§ 84, 2). 

Remark. — The comparison with TiOrjui being presupposed, we barely state what 
tenses occur of this verb ; it is rather uncommon as a simple primitive, and most 
of the forms mentioned here appear only in its compounds. 

Act. Pres. 'Iriiui, u]g, &c. S pers. pi. la(n{v) or LU(ji{v), the 
former a contr. of i£a(Ti, comp. riO^aaL. 
Inf. Uvm, part, lelg, conj. lu), opt. hir]v, imper. (^leOi,) com- 
monly hi of 'IE12, as tWei of TIGEO. 
Imperf. l-qv, and (of 'lEQ,) low. Compound a^iouv or 

ri(l)Lovv, (see § 86, Obs. 2.) 3 pers. pi. ^c^ti^aav. 
Perf. uKa \ plusq. ukhv. 
Put. T^(T(jj, aor. 1. riKa, (§ 106, 10.) Ion. f'rjfca. 
Aor. 2. r}v, &c. (not used in the sing., it is supplied by the 
aor. 1.) pi. Efjiev, era, eaav, commonly with the au(/- 
menty Eijuev, arf, elcrav {KaOeTfxev, avarf, cKpHGav). 
Inf. elvm, part, ug, conj. w. 
Opt, tirjv, pi. aljuiev, are, ehv, for dyjjLiev, &c. 
Imper. 'ig. 

Conjugate in the same way particularly the com- 
pounds ; ex. gr. capuvai, a^w, ac^ec? &c. opt. pi. 
avHfxev for avdrjjuev, &c. 
Pass, and Medium, compare riOr^fii, for instance, 

Pres. isjuat, perf. Hfiai, iitOuinaL, fi^duaQaL, /atOuaOu), &c. 
Aor. 1. Pass. W-nv, commonly with the augment dOr]v, 

ex.gr. cKpEiOr^v, part. a(l)e9ug, &c. 
Aor. 1. Med. r}Ka/jir)v (more in use than the same aor. of 

TiOrjiuLi, yet only in the indie). 
Aor. 2. Med. e/uly^v, commonly with the augment ufxr]v, 
ex. gr. cKpelro, l<pHVTo ^, 

from which taBaL, enievog, {TTpoicrOat, a0£/x£yocj) conj. 
wfxai. 
Imper. ov [acpov, Trpoou, TrpoeaOe, &c.). See p. 186. 
Verbal Adjectives, kriog, krog [a^ETog, &c.). 
2. Compare the Obs. III. and IV. to the preceding § about 
the Attic conj. and opt.^ ex. gr. wpoijOjuLai, Trpoijrat, lotro, q^iolvto, 

^ Like HOsiKa. There is a more uncommon form, eojKa, with the intercalated w, 
according to § 97- Obs. 2. of which the pass, dcpkiovrai occurs in the New Testa- 
ment. See Buttra. Lex'dogus, I. p. 296. 

2 The accent is not drawn back, because of tlie augment; see § 84. Obs. 4. 

p 2 



212 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

irp6oi(j9s, and about the dialects, ex.gr. a^ko, a^eiw^for the conj. 
a<pw, ycTL for the 3 pers. sing. conj. y. 

3. There is, however, a peculiar Tonic-Attic form of the 
imperf. in -uv instead of -rjv in the compounds : irpoiuv, Od. k. 
100. r](^Luv^ Plato Euthyd. 51. See Buttm. Complete Greek 
Grammar. 

4i. We must also notice the Homeric fut. and aor. aviaEi, 
aviaaifiL, &c. according to another more regular formation, but 
which occur only in the compound with ava, and, as it appears, 
merely when this prep, signifies back, again. 

5. There is a primitive verb 'lO assumed as theme, espe- 
cially the compounds ANIQ, ME0IO. But the forms which 
belong hither, and are chiefly Ionic and poetical, rest mostly on 
the accent \ We may, however, rank more safely among these 
forms Homer's t,vviov, and the Ionic luLejutrijuevog of MET JO, 
{imperf. jueTiero or ejunTUTOj) Ion. for MEGIO, commonly jusOiij/xt, 
fxediSTO, jueO^Lfxivog. 

II. elaa, I placed, and rifiai, I sit, 

1. A defective verb, of which the following forms occur in its 
transitive signification, but only in particular fixed meanings, 
to erect a building, lay an ambush, 

Aor. 1. flcra, med. HtjajULrjv, 
where the diphthong properly is the augment; whence the 
part. e(Tag, {Od. ^. 280.) and for the sake of the metre infin. 
e(T(Tai^ {E(f)i(T(jai,) eaaaTo, and with the syllabic augment Uaoraro, 
{Od. S. 295.) which forms are liable to be mistaken for the 
similar ones of evvv/iJiL :-— but the diphthong ei served also to 
strengthen the other forms, imper. daov, part, elaag, elcraiusvog. 
The fut. med. uaojiai occurs but rarely. Whatever is wanting 
is supplied by l^qvlo. 

2. But the perf pass., which mostly has the power of an 
intransitive pres. tense, is 

yifiai, I sit. 
Pres. rifjLai, riaai, riaraL, &C. 3 pers. pi. rivrai {Ton. tarai, 

Epic darai). 
Imperf. y^jurjv, r\Go, riGTo, &c. 3 pers. pi. rivro {Ion. earo, 
Epic tiaTo). 
Infin. TJaOai^ part, riiu^vog, imper. riao, riaOoj, &c. 

3 If we write, for instance, the 2 pers. sing. 2)res. fjitOulg, it belongs to 'lEQ, but 
HeOieiQ to 'IQ. 



VERBS. 213 

3. The compound KaOr^iuLaL is, however^ more in use. This 
does not take the a in the 3 pers. except when it has not the 
syllabic augment in the iinperf, ; thus 

KadTi]jiaL, 3 pers. KaOrjrai, 

iKadi]fxr\v or K.aQr]iir\v^ 3 pers, eKaOr^TO or fca^rjoro, 

Infill. Ka6ri(j0aL^^ part. KaOr]fiEvog^ imper. Ka9r](7o, 

Conj. KadiOfxai^ rj, ■}i]Tai, &c. opt. KaQoifiriv, 3 pers. KaOoLTO 
(compare § 107. Obs. III. 4). 
Later writers employ also for the 2 pe7^s. the form KaOij, and in 
the imper. kclOov, for KaOriarai^ KaOrjcro. The lonians have in their 
usual way a r— fcarrj^at, 3 pers.pl. KaraaraL, &c. 

4. Whatever is wanting, is supplied by a^aaOat or 'ItiaaOai, and 
its compound with Kara. 

III. "Evvu/it, (Ion. alvvfiL,) I clothe, put on, follows the con- 
jugation of SaiKvvjUL, and has its deficiencies supplied by the 
theme 'EQ. See § 112, 14. 

When not compounded, this verb is merely poetical, and we 
find the 

Fut. a(T(jj, £(T(Ta)5 aor. a&aa, infill, aaai, aacrai, med. a(jGa.fxr\v, 
perf. pass, alfxai, alaai, ahai, &c. whence the ^pers. pl.plusq, 
alaro [II. g. 596.) — and of the form aafxai, plusq, 
^ pers. aGGo, ^ pers. toro, 
and with the syllabic augment, aor. kaoGaTo, plusq, Ugto, 
The compound a/Kpiavvv/iU is used in prose : 

Fut. cijucpiaGco, Attic ajJL(pLw, aor. 1. ?7/x^i£(Ta, afKpiaGai, 
Perf. pass. r]}X(^LaGfiai, r]ix(^LaGaii r]H(piaGTai, &c. infin. r]n^iaG9aL, 
The compound with a7r\, commonly without eliding the i, is 
likewise used; ex.gr., aor. 1. med. aTriaGaGOai. 

IV. alfju, lam, of 'EQ. 
1. The usual conjugation of this verb is the following : 
Pres. Si?ig, aiiLLl, alg, commonly al, IgtIv, IgtI, 

Dual, aGTov, Igtov, 

PI. aGjuav, IgtI, eIgXv, ^IgX, 

Infin. alvaL,part. u)v, [gen. ovtoq,) ovgu, ov, 
Conj. t5, yg, 7J, riTOV, tjtov, (L/dav, ^ra, u)Gl{v), 
Opt. alr^v, airig, aitf, airiTov, alijrrjv, aLr]^av, seldom aiixav, airjTa, 
seldom aha, alrjGav, commonly ahv\ 

* Be careful to observe in the compounds the difference in the accentuation of 
KciOijuaL and KaOqcrOaL, just as in Keljiai. (§ 109. IT.) 

* The particle ehv, well! be it so ! appears to have arisen from the ^ pers. sing, 
elj], for it requires the sing, whether you supply tovto or ravra. 



214 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Imper. iaQi^, taTU)^, Du. 'iarov, iarojvypl. Eore, EGTUxrav or ecjTiov, 
Impei'f. Sing. y]v, tiq, commonly rjaOa^, riv, 

Dual, — rirov, or 7}(7TOVy rjriqv, or r]<TTY)v, 

PI. ^juev, ^T£y or Tjcrre, ^]aav. 

The fut, is formed as med. : 

lEGo/Liai, 2pers. £0-7? or eaei, S pers. taeraL, commonly tWaf, 
infin. tae(TOai, Sec, 
Verbal adj. (neuter) eariov [awEdTeov, &c.). 

2. There is, moreover, of the med, 

1 pe7's. sing, imperf. rjimrjv, 
the same with the act., but of less frequent occurrence in the 
old writers. See about a pretended 3 pers, pi, eiaro, for ^vto, 
Od, V. 106. Buttm. Complete Gr, Gr. The 2 pers. sing, of the 
imper, eao, 'iaaoy is found in Doric and Epic writings. 

3. The present £t/xi, &c. is enclitical, but is only used as such 
when it merely is the logical copula (connecting the predicate 
with the subject) ; whenever it denotes a being, an existence, 
or has a particular emphasis, it retains its accent. The 3 pers, 
sing, in particular then has it on the first syllable ; ex. gr, Oboq 
%(7TLv, iari fjioi ^ovXog. It is also always in this form tcjTiv after 
the unaccented particles wg, ovk, d, and after tovto and aXXa, 
when these words have the apostrophus, ouk egti, tovt 'iariv. 
Else, when the encliticality is barely prevented, (see § 143 5.) 
the accent is on the final syllable; ex, gr, Xoyog iarX, ayaObg ^' 
aariv. The 2 pers, el or eJg never is enclitic, but the dialectic 
form laal is so (4). 

4. There is no verb in which the dialects dificr more than 
in this. We simply mention those particulars which do not 
follow of course from what was stated in this respect in the 
Obs, to § 103. 

Pres. Doric sing. Ijufu, eacn, .evt\, which also serves for the 
3 pers. pi. fieri : — Ionic 2 pers. sing, also Io-cti, 1 pi. eijuiev, 
S pi. 'ia(n{v) : — there is likewise a poetical form kfilv for 
ecTfitv, 

Imperf. Tonic sometimes ^a and m, 2 pers, eag, 3 pers, rfe 
or ^ev, 2 pers. pi. fare, &c. and sometimes fov, (the Ipers, 
in Homer,) of the primitive form 'E12, and 'idKov. The 
Attic form of 

the 1 pers. ^ for ^v, 

** This must not be confounded with 'laQi, hioio! See in the following § olSa. 

' Plato, JRep. 2. [). 361. has a singular form i'lro). 

8 With later writers tjQ. Compare § 103. Obs. V. 12. 



VERBS. 215 

comes from the form sa. Instead of the S pers. sing, rjv, 
Epic poets have likewise the lengthened rjrjy and erjv^. 
By a singular anomaly the Dorians have rje for the same 
3 pe7's. The 3 pers. pi. is Ion. riaav, and Doric 'iaav ^\ 

Infill, old and Ionic tjuev, 'i/uLevai, ijifizv, ejLijLievaL, 
Doync riiiev and ^/x£c ^^. 

Lastly, the lonians make of the primitive form 'E12 part. 
Ilov, (with the accent on the final syllable,) conj. cw, opt. 

toLfXU 

5. In the compounds of this verb the prep, takes the accent, 
whenever it is not contrary to the general rules (see Obs. I. to 
§ 103) ; for instance, irdpeijuLi, 2 pers. Trdpei, but irapriv, (because 
of the augment,) irapiaTai, (because of the syncope,) irapdvaiy 
(ibid. Obs. I. 4, 3.) conj. -rrapu), ijg, y, Sec, and the opt. 3 pi, 
irapuEv, because of the formation in juf. The part, too keeps 
the accent ; ex. gr. napwv. (See below § 117. about irdpa, Ivi, 
&c. for TTdpeari, &c.) 

V. elf.u, I go, of IQ. 

1. The radical vowel of this verb is i, which lengthened be- 
comes £1, and is attended with many an anomaly in form and 
signification. The conjugation of what is in use, is as follows : — 

Pres. Sing, etfxi, elg, commonly a, ei(jl{v), 

Dual, — iVov, i'rov, 

Plicr. Ijuiev, tVf, 'ia(n{v), 

Infin, Uvai, 
Part. Iwv, always with the accent on the final syllable, like 

the part. aor. in other verbs. 
Conj. '/w, opt. 'loifiL or loiriv, 

Imper. Wi, (in compounds a, as irpoau, &c.) tVw, &c. 
3 pei^s. pi. 'iTuxjav, or Iovtujv, 
Imperf. Sing, yihv, commonly rim, or ya, 
yeig, or yetcrOa, 
yet, or yeiv ^\ [Ion. r}k or y'iUv,) 

^ II. X. 762. has Itjv for the 1 pers., which is doubtful. See Buttmaim's Complete 
Gr. G-r. p. 551. Note. 

'° That Yiv is also quoted for fjaav, rests on a few passages of poets, where riv is 
construed with a 1)1111X11, but preceding it, as tyiq ^' rjv t^iTq KtcpaXai, Heslod, 0. 
321. in which case it is a peculiai'ity of sjTitax. See below, § 129. Obs. 2. 

^ • Both Doric forms are also the 1 pers. pi. imperf. 

^2 Cliiefly only before vowels. 



216 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



Plw\ yeijUEv, or y/uev, 



y£LT£, or rjre, 

yeaav {Ion, ri'iaav, Homer rjaav). 
The dual, according to the analogy of the 2 pers.pl. 
Med. (with the signif. to hasten, hasten on or away,) is 
used only in the pres. and imperf, 

'Ujiiai, U/ixriv, 
and is conjugated like tsjuai (of ir^/xt). 
Verb. adj. hiog, hog, or trrjrtoc, IrriTog. 

2. The compounds take the accent in the same way as those 
of £ifM, ex.gr. irdpuin, irap^t, and thus agree with the same per- 
sons in that verb, as does the 3 sing. Trapucn with the 3 pi. in 
a/it. 

3. This verb is the only instance of a verb in /ni having i for 
its radical vowel ^\ As the verbs with the radical vowel e keep 
this vowel in the pi., but change it into r) in the sing., so does 
eljui lengthen the i into h [ufxi, hctl, iiuev, he, like TiOrjiai, rjcrt, 
ijuev, ere). In the infin. Uvai, and in the med. hfiai, &c. the £ is 
a mere intercalation ; it should properly be Uai, 'ifxm, (as riOr^fxi, 
-evai, -sjULm,) and the old and Epic infin. ifiev, ifxevai, (like 
tlOe/ulev or riOivai,) agree with this analogy. The Homeric opt. 
tir)v, {II. w. 139. Od. 5. 496.) is perfectly analogous with h instead 
of 7, according to the analogy of ^ur^v : see § 107. Obs. III. 6. 
with the Note. Tradition has also admitted one instance of the 
opt. hLr]v, like TiOsirjv in II. r. 209, according to the literal analogy 
of livai {TiOevai). Homer has elaOa instead of slg or d. 

4. No tenses but those stated above are in use in the com- 
mon language ; this verb is really a defective one. The active 
forms which we have mentioned belong to the mixed anomalous 
verb Epxoiuai, 9i\0ov, (see the Anomalous Verbs,^ and supply 
some of its less usual forms. 

5. There is a singular anomaly in this verb in point of signi- 
fication ; the pres. eljui conveys the meaning of the fut. I shall 
or will go, without any genuine exception but in Epic poets 
and later writers. This elfxi thus supplies the fut. eXsixrofjiaL, 
(see the Anom. tfj^ofiai,) which, owing to its heaviness, par- 
ticularly in compounds, is less used ^\ 

^' The pi. of SsSia, and the aor. 2. med. k^Qiixrjv, (see the Anom. deXcrai, ^9iu),) 
are isolated syncopated forms, which follow the same analogy (compare § IOC. 
Obs. 8). 

'^* This is by no means confined to the Attics ; see, for instance, Herod. 3, 72. 
(Tra^iHiv,) Horn. II. k. 450. Only that in Homer there are also instances of its 
being the pres. {ex. gr. Od. k. 191.) but there are no genuine instances of this in the 



VERBS. 217 

6. The other moods of ufii, whose nature allows it^ may also 
convey the meaning of the fut., though this does not imme- 
diately appear in accessary or dependent sentences, in which 
they generally are employed ^^ It is most distinctly seen in the 
part., ex. gr. irapeaKevdZeTo wq cnrLtbv, he equipped himself as one 
who will go away ^^ But in the generality of instances all the 
other moods and the part, have the signif. of the pres., and are 
thus used for the same moods of 'ip^ofxai, to which they are 
commonly preferred, as being less heavy. 

7. The anomalous accent of twy must not mislead the learner 
to mistake this participle for an aorist. The same anomaly 
takes place in the Ionic ewv of eljuX and in Kidw. See the Anom. 

Kit, '\ 

8. Instead of the imperf., which we have given above, ancient 
grammarians have another, elv, elg, a, t^fv, he, "laav, and along 
with it an aor. 2. tov, 'Uq, Slc, to which they erroneously annex 
the part, hov, merely for the sake of its accent. Whatever 
occurs of these forms is barely Epic, and fluctuates like other 
old preterites between the signif. of the imperf, and of the aor. ; 
but we never meet with any except the S pers. 

f£ or ffv, iTr}v, i(7av . 
Grammarians alone supplied thus the two other forms according 
to analogy ^^ 

9. Out of these two simple preterites arose in common use 
two more complete forms, viz. from '/ov, with the Epics y'i'iov or 
Tjov, and from av, in common language, the //etv mentioned 
above. This last form at the same time became rjVa or ria, 
which is the Ion., just as in rWrijuii^ hL6r]v gave the Ion. hiOea, 

Attics, at least in prose ; for those are not genuine which may be expressed in 
English by a jores., though the sense unquestionably points to the fut. ; for instance, 
/ am now going home, instead of I will, shall go home, am on the point of going home. 

^^ Ex. gr. Thuc. 5, 7- 'Evojui^jv, dirtsvai, ottotov (Sov\r}Tai, he thought he should 
be able to go away when he liked, where we also could say in English, he hoped to go 
airay. — Again, after onvvfxi, ex. gr. u>no(rev, UTCikvai, juravit se abiturum, he swore to 
go away. See also Plato Phced. 103. 

16 It is plainly the fut. in Xenoph. K. A. 2, 3. extr. "H^w avcrKsvaaafxtvog, ojg 
cnra^uiv vixag sIq tyjv 'EXkdda, Kai avrbg cnriujv eiri rrjv sjuaurov a.pxV'^- 

1^ The part. 1<jjv may be considered as a prceterite, in connexions like ex. gr. 11. a. 
179. o'lKai' ioJV—Mvpuidovsffaiv avatrcje. But we shall show in § 145. Obs.T. that 
evident pres. tenses are thus employed. There is no true pari. aor. but eXOoJV (see 
Anom. ipxofiai). 

1' If dTrijjLtv, 7rp6(naav, and the like, be found as imperf. in the editions of prose- 
writers, they are either false readings {ex. gr. ijutv for yfiev) or the incorrect 
language of later writers. 

1^ dv, namely, bears the same relation to tlfii and 'laav, as kriOriv to Ti9)}[xi and 



218 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

and in alfju, (/ am,) rjv became the Ion. ria, with this difference^ 
that this rim, ya, continued also in use in the Attic language^ 
along with yeiv. Very incorrectly the old grammarians stated 
this ri'ia, ija, as a per/., and yeiv as a plusq. derived from it^ 
though the signification miUtated against it^ and there are no 
other characteristic forms of 2iperf. rjia, (in — aai, — Ivai, part. 
— tbg,) occurring any where ^^ This imperf. ya, yug, &c. has 
chiefly continued in use to supply the place of the imperf. 
y]^y6\xr\v of epxofiai, which, because of its equivocal meaning, 
apxofxai having the same imperf., was seldom employed ^^ 

10. We must further notice in the Epic language another 
medial form : but without including the accessary idea of haste : 

Fut. and aor. 1. ti(Toiuai,- daafirjv, 
which are both liable to be mistaken for the similar forms of 

20 Compare with this yeiv and r]'iov as a lengthening of flv and lov, the form 
rjeideiv for ydeiv or e'ldsiv in the following Section, under ol8a. For the reading 
yeiv with the iota suhscriptum has unquestionably been introduced by grammarians 
merely for the sake of this derivation from rfia, and the lengthening itself is owing 
to the wish of applying the augment without preventing the syllable ei being recog- 
nised. But the forms yeifiev, yeire, yecrav, which really occur, have undoubtedly 
been introduced solely by the seeming analogy of the plusq., since in the beginning 
ri'llitv, ri'iTE, fi'iaav, were alone used ; hence the latter form {fi'iaav) has really con- 
tinued in the Ionic dialect. 

2^ It will be proper to give some examples of ya as imperf. : Plato Rep. 5. init., 
where Socrates relates a conversation, and after having stated the question of the 
interlocutor, 'what kinds of malice he meant,' continues, Kai syw iihv ya rag 

ecpe^fig epwv — , 6 de rioXEjuap^oc sicnivag TTpodrjydysTo — icai 'i\eyev drra — . 

Here any language which makes a distinction between aor. and imperf. absolutely 
requires the imperf. : in eo eram iit dicerem, — 'j'allols dire' in French, and in 
English, I was going to say. — Xenojyh. K. n. 5, 4, 10. 11. (5, 6.) where the conversa- 
tion of two persons meeting together is I'clated: '0 'K.v^og — tiirtv, 'Eyw 8k irpbg ah, 
ecprj, e7naKiiip6i.uvog, oTTwg fx^ig, sTropevofJiijv (a various reading has i]'ia instead of 
'i(pr} v.'ithout e7ropev6ixr]v). 'Eyoj da y , 'i(pr] 6 FaSdrag, val fid rovg Oeovg, <ts errava- 
dtaaojitvog ffia. — Plato Charm. init.^RKOV jiev ry Trporepaia — UTrb rov aTQaroTtk' 
8ov' olov 8e Sid xpovov d(piyfisvog dafxeviog ya eiri rdg rrvvrjOeig diaTpij3dg, kuI diij 
Kal t'lQ Tiijv Tavpkov Tra\ai(TTpav — tiorjXOov, Kal avroQi KaTkXaj3ov, k. r. X. The 
first lines here, as in the introduction of others of Plato's Dialogues, describe the 
existing circumstances at the time of the occurrence ; rja errl rag d larp 1(3 dg denotes, 
as the pi. shows, a duration, and is consequently an imperf. ; but immediately with 
the action, eig rrjv Tavpsov TraXaiurpav eidfjXOov, begins the fact related in the 
aor. — Demosth. c. Steph. I. p. 1106, is also clearly an imperf; for the preceding 
eyvwaav is a time past, and the following, 'Eyw dt, d Tig t'iSikei fie, stti tovtov ya, 
is the well-known hypothetical statement, where imperf. denote the present time ; 
consequently ya as a necessary imperf. cannot be changed. But this passage being 
rather involved, let us take Hei'od. 2, 42. where the conditional or contingent, 
"Eycjye dv ovk ij'ia — TroXXaxv re dv lax^v IjUfwurov, stands without any premises, 
and, as the context shows, cannot possibly be time past. These and other distinct 
passages, in which the natural oi'der of thoughts, and the known practice of the lan- 
guage, suggest the impeif, must serve as a foundation to judge of passages in which 
the aor. may appear more proper, and the same with other passages of the ancients, 
where real imperf stand in a connexion which leads us to expect an aor., since it 
frequently happens that the action, which our mind conceives as rapidly performed 
and past, may be considered by the speaker in its duration, or in its co-existence with 
another action related by him, when it must, of course, be expressed in the imperf. 






VERBS. 219 

d^Wj especially since Homer also has hicraTo without eliding the 
vo^yel of the prep. Karadc^aTo, ivent down. 

§ 109. 

The following verbs must hkewise be stated here : 
I. ^y\\iii I say, of $AQ. 
Pres. ^ing. (prjfii, ^yg, (pr]ai[v), 

Dualy — (parovy (parov, 

PL (pafxlv, (pari, (pa(7\{v), 

Infin. (pavai, Part, (pag, 
CoNj. (pC), Opt. (pairiv, Imper. (paOi, 
Imperf. Sing. t(pr]v, ecprjg, commonly i(py]GQa, l(pr\. 
Dual, — s(paTOv, i(parr]v, 

PI. erpafiev, ecpars, l^cpaaav, (poetically e(pav,) 

Fut. <prj<7(i), aor. 1. e^rjcra. 

The med. (pdaOai, k(paiuLr}v, {imper. cpao for (paao in HomerJ is 
used as well as a few peyficts of the pass, voice^ hke 
TTEcpaaOd), {be it said,) Trecpaaimlvog. 
Verbal adjectives, (pariog, (parog. 

1. The pres. indie. ^ with the exception of ^i^g, is enclitic ac- 
cording to § 14. The compounds are accented avjUKpr^jui, (jvfKpyg, 
avTi^rjIULi, avricpyg. 

2. With respect to the sign if. of this verb, we must distin- 
guish 1.) the general one, to say, 2.) the more particular ones, 
to affirm, assert, pretend, concede, and the like. The pres. <pY]jil 
includes both ;• but in the first signification it is chiefly the^re^. 
and imperf. act. with all their moods, which are in common use, 
the rest is supplied by the Anom. httiTlv, &c. w^hich see. The 
fut. and aor. (pr^aw, t(pr}aa, have preferably the more particular 
significations, which in the imperf, infill., and part, pres., to 
avoid ambiguity, are more usually expressed either by (paaKuv, 
w^hich else is not used in prose, or by the middle voice \ 

3. We have arranged and denominated the forms of this 
verb as their formation requires ; but with respect to its use, 
we notice further that the imperf i^r]v commonly is likewise aor. 
and may be interchanged with uirov as perfectly synonymous. 
To this t(pr\v must be joined the injin. (pavai, which in a narrative 

^ For instance, 'i(pr) (tttovM^siv, he said that he was in haste, tcpacrKs aTrovSdKeiv, he 
2)retende(l to be in haste, (pdoKdiv, pretendingy asseHing ; ov ^dfxevog, denying (for ov 
(prifii, is exactly the contrary of <pT(]iii, I affirm, assert, see § 148. 06s. 2). 



220 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

is always used in the sense of the prceterite. If in the affirma- 
tive we say, for instance, e^jj 6 ITfpfJcXfjcj Pericles said, we say 
in sermone obliquo, cpavai rov IlEpLKXia, Pericles [is reported) to 
have said. Whenever the infin. pres. is required, \ijuv or 
(pacTKELv, which we mentioned before, must be employed. 

4. In the language of daily intercourse an aph(jeresis (sub- 
tracting from the beginning of a word) has given rise to the 
following forms, 

T^/ii, say /, (^ inquam,') the French dis-je, 
on repeating one^s self in a lively speech ; and the same in the 
imperf. ^v, ^,for f^rjt', £^rj, {(pY\v, (pii,) merely in such locutions, as 
^v d' tju), said /, 
^ 8' oc, said he, 
in relating a conversation ; and to this must be added the Epic 

ri, [he or she said,) 
after having related a speech by way of a transition to the con- 
tinuance of a narrative. 

II. Keifiai, I lie, of KEIQ, KEli. 

Pres. KUGai, KeXrai, &c. Spers.pl. KelvTai, 

Infin. KelaSai, part, kujievoq, imper. kugo, &c. 
Conj. KiuyjuLai, Kty, &c. opt. Keoifxriv, 
Imperf. ticft/irjv, s/cefo-o, c/cetro, &c. 
Fut. Keiaojuaif 
Compounds KaraKUixai^ KaTaKUcro, &c. but the infin. KaraKEiaOai. 

1. The lonians also have of the radical verb KEO, Kkrai, 
Ktovrai, KeeaOaiy besides other forms, as KSiarai, Ktarai, for Kuvrai, 
and the iterative kI(jketo. 

2. The act. form kelu)^ kem, in Homer, conveys the meaning 
of the fut., I will lie down. See below the Note to Sijio in the 
Anom. AA. 

3. This verb, according to some grammarians, had no con- 
junctive mood; hence we find here and there KUfiai, Kurm, in 
the sense of the conjunctive, ex. gr, '^iaKEi\xm^ Plato Phced. 84. 
and jcarat in Homer, where other critics read Krirai. 

4. Along with its simple meaning, KEifiat is also considered as 
^perf. pass, of tIOyjiul : hence all its compounds correspond in 
their signification to the compounds of TiOrj/iL, ex. gr. avariOr^iun, 
I consecrate, avaicst/xat, lam consecrated^, 

2 The difference between this and the real per/, pass, of riQijfxi is simply that it 
denotes the continued passive state, and hence has not generally as the other the 



olaOa ^, 


OlS£{v), 


'larov, 


\(JTOV, 


'l(TTE, 


'Laa(TL{v), 


part, eldiog^ via, 


OC? 


opt, ddElY]V, 





VERBS. 221 

III. OlSa, I know, of a§w. 

1. The old verb el^co properly signifies to see ; a few of its 
tenses only signify to know. None of the forms of one signi- 
fication occur in the other ; and as the forms which mean to 
knoiv have many other anomalies, it is of great practical use to 
learn them here separately. Look for it in the sense of to see 
in the list o^ Anomalous Verbs under aSw and bpaw, 

2. OlSa is properly the perf. 2. of d^w, like loiKa, Ionic oiKa, 
of uK(jj, {I have seen, perceived,) but has the power of a pres, 
tense in the signification of to know, and the plusq. has, of 
course, that of the imperf, (see below, § 113. Obs. 10.) The 2 
pers, oldag and the whole pi. ol^ajuev, oldare, oi^acn, are of very 
rare occurrence in the Attics as the regular conjugation of olda, 
which is supplied by syncopated forms ; as, 

Pres. Sin^. olda, 
Dual, — 
PI. '[(y/biev, 
Infin. d^ivai, 
Conj. EiSw, 
Imper. IgOl ^ '/o-rw, &c. 
Imperf. sing. ydsLv, Att. y^rj, I did know, 
[Comp. § 113. ^jjhiQ, commonly ySeiaOa, Att. y^r]G9a, 
Obs. II. 2.) ;;ga, Att. y^Eiv, and ^jSn, 
PI. ydEifiEv, or ?](TjU£v, 
rjdtiTE, or yare, 
ySeaav, or yaav, 
Fut. ELGOiiai, more rarely £i§/;cra», / shall know or leaim. 
Verbal adj. {neuter,) [(jriov. 
The aor. and the true perf. are supplied from jiyvMaKw. 
See the list of Anomalous Verbs. 

3. The lonians and Dorians have 'Idfiev for to-^f v : the Epics 
i^fiEvai and 'Idjuev for Eidhai, and instead of the plusq. ydtiv they 
also have a lengthened form, for instance, 2 pers. risL^eig, YisLdric, 
3 pers. ^ddei, ^a'Srj, (11. x- 280. Od. i. 206. ApoU. Rh. 2, 822.) 
and Herod, (1, 45.) has with a shortened termination ?/£(?£, see 

subject of the act. with vtto or Trpog connected with it, for instance, <yvvTiQr]f.a,I 
put together, compose, avvrsOeiTai inr' avrov, it has been put together, composed hy him^ 
avyKSirai, it is comp)Osed, consists of. 

3 A syncopated form instead of ol^aaQa, old-aQa. See Ohs. V. 12. to § 103. — 
There is an evidently incorrect, yet old and Attic form olaQaq, see Pierson ad 
Moer. 283. 

* Which must not be confounded with loOi from ein'i. 



223 A GREEK GRAxMMAR. 

the Note to page 201. — Homer has instead of ^aav — laav with 
the first syllable shortened {Od. I. 772). 

4. Formerly grammarians used to mention here a particular 
verb^ 

to which they gave all the above forms beginning with l, and 
these were considered as syncopated ; the forms olda, elBivai, 
were merely stated in the list of Anomalous Verbs under dduj. 
The Doric dialect has indeed a verb 'IcrafiL, icrnCf iaan, but sup- 
posing even that all those forms are derived from it, usage has 
most certainly intermixed them, and the popular language of 
both old and later times has constantly employed in the sing, 
di^a, and in the pi, 'laiuev. The abovfe mixed conjugation is, 
therefore, best calculated for a Grammar which is to teach the 
practice of the language. 

5. But on looking a little more narrowly into the anomalies 
of the Greek language, we soon perceive that those forms ac- 
tually belong to ol^a or uSw. It is obvious that the Ionic 'ISfjiev 
did not come from 'IcriuLev : the latter, conformably to general 
analogy, (see § 23.) rather came from the former, and l^fisv as 
well as the infin. 'IdfAevm evidently belong to aSw, and not to 
l<jy]in. Add to this the striking analogy, not only of the lan- 
guage in general, which so readily transfers the forms of the 
perf. by means of a syncope to the conjugation in fii, (see 
§ 110, 9.) but also the analogy of this verb itself, as no one 
can deny that the forms of the plusq, ycTjuev, ycrre, differ from 
ySeiiuBv, y^EiTE, barely by this syncope. Now 'lajuev, iWe, stand 
exactly in the same relation to oida/aev, oidars, for the difference 
of the very changeable vowel in this and similar verbs is of no 
weight whatever. The imper. 'IgOl was submitted, exactly like 
KEKpaxOi} avu)x^h to similar abbreviations, (§ 110, 9.) as well as 
the 3 pers.pl. 'Idacn^, from which the collateral form 'larjiui ap- 
pears to be derived. 

^ The point is completely decided by some striking analogies, especially stts- 
TTiOnev and iiKTr]v, which are compared below, § 1 10, 9. But it will not be amiss 
to review here the analogy of all the forms proceeding from toiKa and olSa. Just 
as TTeiOu) makes Tr'sTroiQa, so do tucw and fi^w make toiKa, and properly also 'ioida, 
the 6 supplying the place of the redupl. (§ 84. 06s. G.) A shortened form 

oIku, olda, 
passed from the first verb into the Ionic dialect, and the second into the common 
language. But the complete form eoiKa, 'doida, by changing oi into t, and by eon- 
traction, (as it were of iJKa, (Ida,) px'oduced 

the joar^. eiKOJQ, sidojg, and 
the moods tldio, tiSelijv, stated above, 6. The wi-itten language itself furnishes the 



VERBS. 223 

6. The syllable el instead of oi in the other moods of ol^a has 
in its favour the analogy ofsoiKa, (Ion. olfca^) eIkwq {Anom. c'/kw). 
See the Note below. — Here too we plainly see the transition to 
the conjugation in /ai : for, whilst the part. Eidwg continues in 
the usual analogy, the conj. and opt. take the terminations of 
that conjugation, £iSw, (circumflexed,) eldsiriv. But the Epic 
poets may shorten the long vowel of this conjunctive, and 
neglect its accent as readily as in other conjunctives : Iva £tSo- 
fiev for £iSa>^£v. — The radical vowel i was also shortened, conj. 
Idecjjpart. iSvla (Homer''). 

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE ANOMALY OF VERBS. 

§ 110. — Syncope and Metathesis. 

1. It is true that whatever deviates in language from the 
larger mass of what is regular, still follows some analogy even 
in this deviation ; but this, especially in a dead language, is not 
always apparent, a variety of instances of the usage in common 
life, and of the different dialects, not having been assimilated 
to the language of books. Such isolated instances, which can 
only be learned and remembered singly, constitute anomaly in 

proof that practice retains sometimes several forms at once, and sometimes a single 
one ; the part, of 'ioiKa occurs in the three forms, Ioikojq, tiKihg, oiicojg, but that of 
ol8a occurs only in one, slSmq. — The plusq. required a new augment : toiica com- 
monly took it according to the analogy of eopra^w eoopraZov, hpKfiv : but there was 
likewise a reguleiv plusq. with the syllable ot shortened. This appears from the 
pass, form, {of the perf. 'iiynai,2)Iusq. r]iy}ir]v^ 

^ pjers. plusq. i'/iKTo, without the augment 'Hkto. 
In the same way arose from 'ioida, 

plusq. [rjLSeiv,) ySeip. 
To this was added the syncope, which, as we shall see below, produced out of ioiKa, 
(altering the vowel,) 

the 1 jjers. pi. of the per/, eoiyfisv, 3 dual of the plusq. 

and out of ot5a, (with the same alteration,) the foi-ms 

{old-(r6a) olaQa, 
"idfxtv and lofiev, 'hre, 
but in the i^lusq. out of yddv 

yapitv, ycTTS, yaav. 
Homer's laav (instead of l8-aav) differs from this yaav, (instead of yS-<yav,) 
merely in the omission of the augment. — The accent, moreover, shows that 'iaaai did 
not come from Iffrjixi, since the 3 pers. pi. of '[(rrjfii must necessarily be l<7a<n, (see 
'ia-rjixi,) and this is confirmed by the additional analogy of the verb ioiKa, 
eoLKU, — (oi into i, itK-<Jaaiv,) el^aniv, 
olda, — {oi into t, i8-aaGiv,) laaaiv. 
Both are Attic forms instead of the regular lo'iKacri, o'idacn, which establishes the 
common anomaly of the termination aaci, instead of the generally prevailing final 
syllable aai of the pe>/. 

^ To facilitate the use of most Dictionaries and Indexes, we observe that all the 
above statements must be looked for in the pres. tenses of t'ldu), tldeuj, and icr^^jut, 
and in their compounds. 



221 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

its strictest meaning ; bat deviations which occur in several 
instances are consequently smaller analogies, which ought pro- 
perly to be added in particular rules and conjugations to the 
more general ones. This, however, would be rather incon- 
venient; those smaller anomalies and isolated instances are, 
therefore, investigated separately, and considered as the ano- 
maly of the language, which in the Greek verb in particular is 
very considerable. 

2. Part of this anomaly has already been stated as excep- 
tions ; the rest is arranged in an Alphabetical List, But to 
promote individual observation, and guard against a mere 
mechanismus, not only the smaller analogies to which these 
deviations conform are mentioned under the head of each verb 
in the List, but we previously review some classes which com- 
prise a greater variety of instances. 

3. A main class of deviations is produced by syncope. The 
conjugation in fii being, as we have seen above, a kind of syn- 
copated form, those parts of a common verb which agree with 
that conjugation must be ranked in this class of anomaly. 

4. Some verbs drop the vowel out of their root, ex. gr. wiXw, 
S pi. imperf. eireXs or eirXs, TreXaw, ao7\ 1. pass. eirXaOr^v, irhofxai, 
fut. TTTYidoiuLaL^. Thcre are two things principally to be at- 
tended to here : — 

a.) In some verbs the aor. 2. is formed merely in this way, 
TreTOjLiaiy [imperf. ETrero/irjv,) aor. 2. £7rro/zrjv, lyeipio eyti- 
pofxai, aor. 2. riypojuiriv, (IwoJce,) ayupw^ part. aor. 2. med. 
aypofievog (assembled ; but part. pass. ayHpomevoi, who 
are assem,bling). Further t(jx<^v and lairov, (see tyuj and 
£7rw,) and 7]Xvdov, ^XOov (see ep^oixai). 

b.) This syncope is most natural after a redupl. : hence 
wnrpaGKtj from irspdio, tt/tttw from DETll, fiifjivu) from 
MEN12, and in the perf., as dejuLix), perf. [dE^eiuYiKa,) ^i- 
^fxr^Ka, (see, however, other similar forms at 11. under 
Metathesis,) wEirrafiaL from IIETAO, see TT&ravvvpn. See 
also juLsiuijdXErai in lueXw. Hither belong also the aor. 
iKeKXofxriv and e7re(pvov from fcAo/zat and <I>ENO with a 
double augment according to § 83. Obs. 7. 

5. The most usual syncope is that of the connecting voweP, 

' Many instances, which seemingly belong to this syncope, are more properly 
ranked under a metathesis. See below, 11, 2. 

2 That we call this a syncopated formation, merely because the usual connecting 



VERBS. 225 

of which the principal instances will be investigated, viz. under 
A the pres. and imperf., under B the aor., and under C the 
perf. 

A) In the pres. and imperf. (when this continues to be the 
imperf.) the syncope takes place in ol^ai, (fjuLr^v, for oiofxai, loofiriv, 
and in the Epic pvaOai, 'ipvaOaij tpvTo, for pveaOai, eoveaOaiy eovsto, 
(see Ipvw,) compare also below in the List (tevu), and edfievai from 
£§w. Hither belongs likewise the Epic (Trevrai, (ttevto, {to strive, 
threaten,) and (according to § 106. Obs, 6.) all the verbs in fxi. 

6. Several verbs have (B) an aor. with this syncope, which 
must be compared with the aor. 2. or considered as such. In 
the 1 pers. act. nothing remains as termination but the v, and 
as this can take place only with a vowel preceding, it produces 
a form which mostly agrees with the aor. 2. of the conjugation 
in fiL in all its moods and part. And the vowel of these aor., 
whether long or short, whether a or rj, conforms generally to 
the perf. 1. of the same verb, and remains unchanged in all its 
persons and moods, except that r? and w are commonly changed 
in the opt. into h, ai, oi, and in the part, into ai, a, ov. Thus, 

G^ivwui, SBE12, ia(3r]Ka, — tafSiqv, ecrfdrj^sv, afSrivai, crjSttr^v. 

(5aivu), BAO, jStjSrjJca, — "iprjv, £/3rj/x£y, [drfvai, (5air]V, f5rj0i. 

Si^pa(7K0), ^idpaKa, — idpav, 'i^pajdev, dpavai, Spatrjv, 3pac ^« 

KT£LV(i), a/craica, — eKTav, iKrafiev, KTavai, /cratrjy, Krag. 

yi-yvdxjKU), tyvdJKa, — syvwy, E-yvw/iEv, yvujvai, yvoirjv, yvovg. 

/3<otL), jSfjStwfca, — IjSiwv, £]3iw^£v, j3iu)vai, fditorjv, (^Lovg. 

(pvoj, iricpiiKa, — 'icpvv, i^vfi^v, (pvvai, (^vrjv^ for (pvir]v, <pvg. 
See the more complete «or/of this kind in aXio-fco/zaf, jStjSpwo-jcw, 
Svd), -wiroiiai, (jKsXXtj, rXrivai, (jyOavoj, and isolated and uncom- 
mon forms in |3aXXw, yripaaKio, kXcluj, ovrdw, ttXIw, ttt^gg^jj. 

Obs. 1 . We observe further : 

1.) The inflection of those aorists follows eott/v with regard to the long vowel 

_ (§ 106, 7, 1). 
2.) in tdpav, (SidpaKa,) a long a takes the place of tj, on account of the pre- 
ceding p : compare yrjpdvai from yrjpaaKU) ; see the Anom. 

vowel does not appear, without intending to assert that it had been thei'e primitively 
and dropped, follows already from what we stated, § 106. Obs. 6, 7- 

2 The length of the a appears from instances like the close of an anapaestic verse 
of Aristoph. (ap. Herodian. Plersoni, p. 465.) Sev | po S' av ovk \ dTrsdpa- | juei^, and 
from the lonismus edprjv. Compare with it particularly yrjoavai, in the Anom. 
yi]pa.(TK(ij. We see that the p, which every whei-e preferably has a after it, also 
prevails here. 

* Theocr. 15, 94. where formerly the reading was incorrectly <pV7j. Compare 
above, § 107. Obs. III. 6. 



226 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

3.) the aor. I<p0})v (00ai'w) is the only one which does not take the vowel of 

the perf. icpQaKa, {aor. 1. t^Odaa,) but that of the fut, ^9ri<J0fiai. 
4.) the aor. sttXwv, on account of its coming from TrXww, (not ttXow,) is the only 
one which retains the a> in the participle ttXojq, {sttlttXojq, II. Z,. 291.) and 
which undoubtedly had Cjvtoq (for ovq, ovtoq). The same is s[3io)v, the only 
one in common language which has ^ instead of oi, in contradistinction 
from ^ioir]v, {opt. pres.) and in more ancient poets occur also aXcftiv, yv(^r]v. 
5.) the shortened 3 pers. plur. in v, instead of aav, has, like tarrjv, the vowel 
before v always short, ex. gr. j3av, 'idpav. See § 107. IV. b. 
06s. 2. As we have seen above, § 106, 107. that the termination 6i of the imper. 
belongs likewise to the syncopated formation, since it has an immediate connexion 
with the root, the imper. of the above forms, as far as it occurs, is formed in the 
same way ; ex. gr. (BrjOi, 8pd9i, yvatOi, dv9i {pi. (Brjre, Svre, &c.). Thus the follow- 
ing iour imper. in 9l and its abbreviation g {% 106, 4.) must be ranked among the 
aor. mentioned here, viz. 

TTtOi, k\v9i, (7Xfe> ^psQ. 
See in the Listy Tvivta, /cXuoi, £X'^> (ppsoj. 

7, To these aor, act. must be added a corresponding pass, 
ao7\ in iur}V} (jo, to, 8lc., which thus corresponds to the aor, 2. 
med. of the regular conjugations. But it must be remembered^ 
1.) that most instances have not the medial, but the perf. pass, 
signif. ; 2.) that with regard to the vowel they conform to the 
perf. pass. ; and, 3.) that they are exclusively confined to the 
most ancient poets. Some of them actually belong to one of 
the mentioned aor, act, as pass,, viz. 

£j3X?7jurjv, opt, j^Xd/uLYiv, — of £j3Xrjv, {^vfx(5\r)Tr)v,) see jSaXXw, 
£/crajur]v, KTaaOai, Kra/mevog, — from tKTav, see /cretvw. 
See also in the List in the proper place the forms 

GvyyvoXro, ovrajizvoQ, and in reference to the mentioned 
Kkvdi, the old part, KXvfievog, 
Whence it follows that those which follow the same analogy 
without any act, form occurring, must be considered in the 
same light : ex, gr, 

TTvew, iraTrvvfiai, — {siTvvfJLYiv,) a/unrvvro, 
Xvoj, XeXvfxai, • — (iXujUrjv,) Xvto, 
(pOiw, t^O'tpiaL, — ^(pO^fjLYiv, (pOifxevog, opt, ^Oijulyiv. 
See the List, See also IwXriiurjv in iriiunrXrjfjLi, lEvaaOe in vatcj, 
Idavpmv in (7£V(i), l\vpir]v in ^^fWjand i\\e part. Krifxevog, TrrajuLEvog, 
(in Treravvvidi,) Ovfievog, apirafxevog, 

8. Neither must the syncopated aor, pass., having a conso- 
nant before their termination, (JeXekto, Slx^ai, &c.) be sepa- 
rated from them. They are derived from the simple theme 
of the verb, and when this simple theme is at the same time 
the usual one, they distinguish themselves from the imperf. 



VERBS. 227 

and the moods of the pres. tense barely by this syncope, on 
account of which they also agree exactly, like the preceding^ 
with their perf, and plusq. pass, without a redupl., with which 
tenses they may be compared, but with which they must not 
be confounded. In their act, and pass» and medial signif. 
they all follow the pres, in ^lai, and they too belong exclusively 
to the most ancient poetry, 

daxofiaij eSe^sjjuriv, l^ede^o, &c. ^edexOai, — aor. syncope, 

{ldiyiur}v,) £§£^0, eSekto, infin, ^ix^ai, imper. M^o. 
jUiyvvfjiLi {Mini,) — (^fxiyfir^v,) jullkto. 
XiKaaOai, — {l\lyjur]V,) XI Jo, XIkto, Xi^^^^* 
naXXu), — (£7raX/ir/v,) TraXro, &C. 

opvvfjii, (OPil,) — imper. 6p<70, wp/zrjv, wpTo, infill. opOai, 
part. opfjLsvoQ, and some others like tyevro for eyivtro, 
EVKTo, (see Evxofxai,) clXto^ (see aWoimai,) hXeXiKTO, (see 
kXEXiZtt)}) 'UjUEvog-, apfJLEvog, 

Obs. 3. That the cr is dropped in terminations beginning with ad, is understood 
of course here as in the^je?/. pass. Hence dex^ai, bpOai. Hither belong also the 
dual nidvdrjv, (see below, jutaiVw,) and dropping two consonants, TrepOai (see below, 

TTSpOo) 5). 

Obs. 4. When the indie, of these pass. aor. retains its augment in any verb, of 
which the redupl. is the simple augment, it cannot be distinguished from the plusq. 
in point of form : wpfxrjv, tKranriv, i(p9ini]v, taaviiriv. 

9. Lastly (C) in the perf. and plusq. lengthened forms are 
sometimes shortened by this syncope, and when such perf. 
have, as we shall see in § 113, the signif. of the pres., they 
have a 2 pers. imper. with the termination di (§ 106, 4. with 
the Obs. 8). This is the case with 

KEKpaya, — KEKpayjiEv, EKEKpayixEv, imper. KEKpaxOi} (see KpaZw,) 
avijjya, (see the List,) — avwyfiEv, imper. avwxOi. 
ElXrfXov6a,^EiXf}Xov9iJLEv, Epic forms for EX{]Xv9a (see ipxo- 
fxm). 
The syllable ol from el generally becomes i through this syn- 
cope, 

TTETTOiOa, from TTEiOa), — ETriTrLOjULEv, (Homer,) 
EoiKa, from eIkio, — EoiyfiEv, ^ pers. dual, 

^ These considerations will enable us to appreciate the merit of the usual state- 
ment, that not only X'ekto, dsxOai, Sec. but also j3\rja6at, ktiixsvoq, &c. are instances 
oi p)^^'f- a.nd plusq. rejecting their redupl. It is obvious that Xskto, ^kyjxtvoQ, are in 
the same predicament with Xvro, Krifievog, and these again with ^\i]aQai, KrdfiEvog. 
But to separate the latter from the act. (5XriTrjv, Iktuv, would be contrary to all 
grammatical criticism. All the above forms must, therefore, be placed in one 
category ; they are aor. like Iktuv, ijSijv, and explained by their syncopated forma- 
tion, which in one part of their forms contains the formation in (jli. 

q2 



228 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Perf, tiKTov, plusq. uKrrjv, all poetical forms, and this 
proves the correctness of our afore-stated derivation 
from '/o-jU£v^ &c. viz. 
ol^a, (from eldw,) — '/3/i£v or '/(t/iev^ 'lgte, S per s. plusq. Epic 
'iGav, imper. 'laOt, 

Infin. Epic iSfiivai for eldEfisvai, (commonly ddevai,) with 
the Att. plusq. yarjuev, ycrre, ycrav, for y^u/mev, ydEire, 
ydeaav. See about the forms from toiKa and olda, the 
Note to § 109. III. 5. 

06s. 5. When through this syncope the consonant of the radical form comes 
before a r in the termination, this r, because of the similarity of sound with the 
terminations of the joass. {TSTvcpOe, ffOapOe, and the like,) sometimes becomes a 6. 
Thus the rest of the persons of the imper. dvcjx^'- becpme instead of 

dvcjyere, avwysrw, — avw^^fj arw%0(i», and of the pe7'f. 

kypriyopa, lypjjyopare, — eyprjyopOSf 
(see sydpu),) and this accounts most naturally for the Epic TreTroGOs, (see below, 

TTSTTovOa, TrsTrovOars, — TrsTToaOs, 
that is to say, as soon as the 9 came before the t, it was changed into c, (as Wjxsv, 
tors,) and the v was dropped, {-TrsTroffre,) which was erroneously made a,pass. TrsTroaOe. 

10. This syncope is more natural whenever the characteristic 
of the verb is a vowel. But, as we have seen in § 97, 7. it is 
but in a very few verbs that this vowel is pure before the 
termination a of the pe^-f,, ex. gr. in 

SsSfa, (see '^tiaai in the List,) whence perf. pi. ^iBi/nev, 
SidiTs, for SsdiaiuLsv, te, 

Plusq. E^idifiev, eSEdirs, e^LSiaav, for e^EdieijUieVy re, l^EdiEcrav, 

Imper. SidiOi, 
and as some of the perf. in rjKa, when shortened by the Epic 
poets, have their radical vowel (a) before the termination, /3f- 
[5r]Ka, (j3£j3aa,) [5e(5aa(n, jSejSawc, this ancient form and this syn- 
cope jointly serve to account for such perf. in the Attic and 
common language in the dual and pi. of the indie, and in the 
infin., ex. gr. of rirXrjKa, (see the Anom. rXrivai,) TETAAA — 
rirXajLiEv, &c. infin. TErXavai (for TETXa-Evai). This agrees per- 
fectly with the pres. of the conjugation in fxi, laTafXEv, IcrravaL : 
hence most of the other parts of the conjugation in jut adopt 
this form of the pe7f. thus, 

Perf. TEtXcLJULEV, TEtXcLTE, TETXa(JL{v), 

dual, TirXarov, 
Plusq. pi. ETirXaidEv, etetXclte, ETETXaaav, 

dual, etetXcltov, ETErXaTriv, 
Infin. TErXavai, (short a,) 



I 



VERBS. 2.29 

Lnper. ri-XaOi, rirXartj, &c. 

Opt. rerXainv* 
The conjunctive of this verb is not used in this form ; we give 
that of J5ej3riica. jSejSo/.iEi', &C. 

ConJ. /3£/3w, yc, y. &c. 
The part, alone does not follow the conjugation in jui, but is 
contracted of acbg — wg, so that the tnasc. and neut. became 
homonymous^ [awg and ahg, gen, aoTog, contracted wg, wTog^) 
and this contracted form has a peculiar fern, in Coaa, ex. gr. of 
j3ti5r]Ka, part. j3ej3r]Ktog, via, bg. 

jSe/SwC; jSejSwaa, (^e^ujg, 

gen. jSe/Swroc. 
Of these perf. there is none in common use but the sing, indie. 
of the pe?'/. and plusq. (reVXrjk-a, ag, e, — herXi^Keiv, sig, ei) : all 
the other parts have the above collateral forms, which mostly 
are more in use than the regular ones. See in the List, be- 
sides rXiivai and (5aivii), dvi]GKw, Tidvt]Ka, and above in 'larriiui, 
(§ 107. Obs. II. 2, 3.) the perf. ^'a-rJ^:a. 

Obs. 6. We observe fui'ther, 

a. that except the 3 per s. pi. of the perf . (TerXdcrt, reOvacnv, tcrracriv, &c.) the 
a is short in all the other forms, the short vowel of the termiuation having 
been removed by syncope, not contracted with the radical vowel ; and that 
consequently we ought not to write rtTXavai, nOvavai, earavai^. 

b. that it is only the contracted part, which has the fern, era : the Epics em- 
ployed it regularly in via in the resolved form, ej:. gr. j3i[3a(hg, fSelSdvXa, — 
j36j3wg, j3ej3u)<Ta. 

c. that the termination aujc, neuter abg, of the part. (§ 27, 10.) becomes eihg in 
the Ionic dialect, (see 'la-Tjfit, § lOJ. Obs. II. 3.) which is the usual Attic 
form in nOvsihc, of 6vr]<TKLo (see the List, and compare further 7re-T<l)Q, ttc- 
TTTsCjg, in the Anom. ttItttu), and /3£/3pa>g in /3£j3ptuc7Kw). 

11. Sometimes a metathesis of the vowel with a liquid, (§ 19. 
Obs. 2.) changes the radical verb, chiefly, in two cases : 

1.) In the aor. 2. see § 96. Obs. 7. and compare also the 
Anom. ajuapravoj, and ripTru). 

2.) In several verbs, of which the simple theme has a 
liquid for its characteristic, ex. gr. in the root 0AN, 
aor. Wavov, fut. Oavovjuat, a transposition of the vowel 
0NA takes place to facilitate the conjugation ; hence 

^ The quantity in comedy, ex. gr. rtQvdvai, Aristoph. Ran. 1012. shows that the 
s?iort a was in common use. But this did not prevent poets, particidarly an old 
one like ^Eschylus, from employing in the infin. for the sake of the metre, the con- 
tracted form TtOvdvai {Agam. 550). The Epic infin. TiQvdfiivai, reOvdnev, are 
explained on comparing them with § 107. Obs. lY. 1. 



230 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

rWvrjKa, riOvajULEv, &c. and this transposition in some 
verbs produces the new usual pres., in this instance 
OvijaKU). The same is done with the root MOA. But 
owing to the difficult pronunciation of fjX, a j3 is in- 
serted between these letters in the middle of the word, 
according to § 19. Obs. 1. jul/xjSXwica for /neijXwKa, and 
the ju itself is changed in the beginning of the word 
into a /3, j3Xw(TK:w^ This supposition renders the ana- 
logy of the three following verbs evident and com- 
plete, 

6vr)<TKix), Oavovfiaiy Wavov, riOvriKa, (GAN, ©NA,) 
Opu)(7K(jj, doQovfxai, Wopov, (GOP, GPO,) 

(5\(i)(TKw, fioXovniai, £/xoXov, niiflf^XwKa, (MOA, MAO,) 
which see in the List ; and the defective forms Ittoqov, 
TTSTTjOwraf, (see below wopeXv,) belong together in the same 
way ^ 
Under this metathesis can be ranked with perfect certainty 
only those verbs in which the transposed vowel is recognised 
in some forms, as the a in reOvavai, Ttdvair}v, and the o in fiifi- 
jSXwKa. But where there is merely an ri, it may appear doubt- 
ful whether we are to call it a metathesis, or simply a syncope ; 
c<r. gr. whether it be dejutj, (A EM, AME,) ^f^^r^Ko, or (like vifiu), 
v5viiJ,rjKa,) Bijiu), (SeScjurjica,) ^sS/xrj/ca. Hither belong with a dif- 
ferently formed pres. 

rifxvw, fut. Tejiiu), aor. etejuov, perf. rhjurjKa, 
Kd{ivii),fut, KajuLovfiai, aor. eKuiuLov, perf. KiKfi^Ka. 
Yet a more distinct analogy appears to class these verbs in the 
category of a metathesis, (TEM, TME, KAM, KMA,) and this 
is still more certain with respect to the verb KoXiw, though the 
succession koXem, /caXeao), K£/cXrjKa, seems to point to a bare syn- 
cope. The fut. Ka\i(j(i), or with the best Attic writers /caXw, is 
unquestionably the fut. of the primitive KAA12, (compare § 95. 
Obs. 12.) but the usual pres. KoXiw comes only from the fut. as 
the Ionic pres. fxaxiofiai does from the fut. fxaxi<yoiiai, — ovfxat 
(see § 95. the second Note to Obs. 16). The radical form 
KAAO gave /cl/cXjjjca by the same transposition, (KAA, KAA,) 

7 Exactly in the same relation are /3Xd^ to fiaXaKog, (SXittu), (/ squeeze out,) to 
H'eXi : see Buttm. Lexilogus, II. 108. And a still stronger analogy for fioXeiv, n^fi- 
/SXojKa, j8Xw(TKw, is afforded by the following two instances, [xopoi;, {death,) ^diain- 
(ipoTOQ, ajxaQTtlv, a.ii(3poTelv, djSpord^eiv. 

* The corresponding radical form of jSi^pcJaKoj has been preserved only in the 
terhal subst. (Sopd. 



VERBS. 231 

as the above perf,: hence the poets have also, corresponding 
to the form 6v{i(jko) from GANG, apres. KiKXwKb), Thus 

KoXioj, KLKXi]GKw,fut. koXCj, pcvf. jclfcXT^Jca, (KAA, KAA.) 
See in the List j3aXXw ^i^\r]Ka, o-kIAXw t(jKkr\Ka. 

Obs. 7. When by transposition two vowels meet together, a contraction ensues ; for 
instance, Kioduj has in fut. and aor. short a, (/cspacrw, Kspdffai,) but by transposition 
Ion. Krp^(7at, Att. (after the p) KSKpuKa, &c. See also TrtXaw, Trepao;. The same 
contraction takes place in the rooi of the verb TapdrTco, (short a,) which being 
transposed 9pdTT(o, (long a,) and aTopkvvvni — (rrpdjvvvni. See both these verbs in 
the list of the Anom. 

§ III. — New Themes derived from the Tenses, 

1. There is another, but not very common species of ano- 
maly^ when any other than the pres. becomes a new theme, 
partly because it could be taken in the sense of the pres., and 
partly because it was more familiar to the ear than the pres. 
This occurs only with the perf. and the aor. 2. act. and pass. ; 
for we have assigned their proper place in § 96. Obs. 9. to 
those forms which, by an irregular assumption of the charac- 
teristic g, used to be derived from the fut. 

2. A. The perf. having frequently the signif. of the pres. 
(as we shall see in § 113.) it sometimes actually forms a new 
pres,, but chiefly only in the Doric dialect, or with Epic poets. 

Thus we read in Theocr. (15, 58.) SfSot/cw for ^idoiKa, I fear, 
{Anom. SeicjGL,) and in Homer KeK\i]yovTeg {Anom. jcXa^w). 
Hence the imperf, in ov derived from perf; ex. gr, Hesiod, 
lirecpvKov, (as if from IlE<l>TKO,) from 7ri(j)VKa, to which also 
belong the 3 pers. like yiyijjve, av{]voBe, avwye, which in Homer 
are not only perf, (that is to say, pres, tenses,) but frequently also 
imperf, (or aor.) Hither belong likewise the fut, Ictd'jJw (see 
§ 107. Obs. II. 4.) and Tt9v{}^u) {Anom. 9v{](tk(v). 

Obs. 1. The statement of this anomaly is rendered rather difficult by the circum- 
stance, that we have unquestionable vestiges of part of the Dorians having given to 
several persons of the actual perf. in general, terminations similar to those of the 
pres. : as the infin, yeydKtiv, Find. {Anom. y'lyvoiiai,) dtSvKijv, (for -uv,) Theocr. 
instead of SsSvKsvai, ttsttovOtjc, TrecpvKT], (for -eiQ,H,) instead of ag, e, Theocr.; and 
the part, in wv, ovaa, instead of mq, via, ex. gr. TrtcppiKovTag, Find. fxefxevdKovcra, 
(from fiffx'svrjKa,) Archimed. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 88. 06s. 11. and 14. 
§ 111. Obs. 2.— Reduplicated aor. Hke Trkitidov, apapov, &c. (§ 83. Obs. 7- § 85. 
Ohs. 2.) are erroneously considered as belonging hither. 

Obs. 2. The accent of some Epic part, and injln. points likewise to a p)erf. pass. 
having assumed the form of a pres ; ex. gr. dKT])(ijjievog and dKa)(rjfievog, uKdxr](T9ai, 
under aKox/^w, aXaX/j/zoi — dXdXrjaOai, dXaXijuevoc, tXijXdfievoCy dprjpkfievogj 
taGVjxtvog, see under kXavpuj, dpapicrKoj, crevuj. 



232 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

3. B. The aor. 2. produces in some verbs a new formation 
as if from iio, and the aor. 2. act. in particular, because of the 
infin. in dv. 

It cannot be presupposed that there have been verbs ^vplu), 
Tvxld), &c. but the aor. evpov, evpelv, Ietvxov, rvxetv, gave birth 
to the formation svprjaw, £upr?/ca, TervxnKa, &c. which produced, 
but later, a pi^es., see evpicTKOJ, ruyx^^^w? ^i^d similar forms in 
juiavOdvit), jSXaaravo), yiyvofxai, &C. 

In some other verbs, of which the aor. 2 pass., as deponens, 
has an act. signif , there was a perf. in r}Ka formed of rjv in the 
same way : 

eppvr^Ka, from lppvr}v, {I flowed,) see piw, 

K^xapn^a and jcexa/or^juat, from cxaprjv, (/ rejoiced,) see 

^£Sa»]K:a and deSaYijULaL, from tSaijy^ (/ learned,) see AA. 

§ 112. — Anomalous Mutability of the Root. 

1. By far the greatest part of the anomalies of the Greek 
verbs consists in the intermixture of forms derived from dif- 
ferent themes, so that several derivative tenses conjugated 
regularly presuppose another pres. than the usual one. Some 
instances of this kind have been treated of above, § 92. sepa- 
rately for practical purposes, and as belonging to the usual 
conjugation. We shall now review those which either deviate 
too much, or offer little uniformity in their class of verbs. 

2. The different way in which the root of a verb is conju- 
gated constitutes the diversity of themes ; and these different 
radical forms very frequently co-exist together through the 
whole verb, or some of its parts, especially in the pres. The 
relationship of some letter, love of euphony, anxiety of the 
old poets to have a variety of forms of words for their verses, 
and lastly also some less important motives, which to us have 
the appearance of mere chance, occasioned the formation and 
combination of such collateral forms. The language of daily 
intercourse generally adopted either one or the other of such 
forms. But it was also very natural that, considering the 
great number of parts of a verb, the differences arising from 
the different radical forms were necessarily intermixed. This 
is the anomaly which actually is so frequent in the Greek verb. 

3. We must remember here what is evident from § 92. that 
the regular process of the verb is by no means the primitive 



VERBS, 233 

and natural one, and in particular that it did not proceed from 
the pres., but that in the most essential verbs expressive of 
natural wants, the most ancient and true root lies in other 
tenses, and most readily in the aor, 2. when there is one ; and 
that the pres. is merely a derivative form, in which the root is 
enlarged, and made fuller and more sonorous ; ex, gr. from 
AHBO or A ABO, — Xan^avio. But this radical form generally 
does not extend beyond the pres. and imperf., so that this 
alone already renders such a verb anomalous, when the whole 
is considered as conformable to method ; ex, gr, XajLijdavu), 
IXoijujSavov, — \r]-tpofxaL, eXaf^ov, &c. 

4. The circumstance that there is a double form of a pres. in 
actual use, occurs even in common prose ; and many double 
forms, like Xdiroj and Xiiunravu), ktuvm and ktivwilu, are found 
in the best prose-writers. But one of the forms frequently 
belongs to a certain dialect, as, for instance, aytvi(v for ajd), 
(pvyyavd) for ^Euyw, were more familiar to the lonians. Poets 
of all times were particularly fond of such collateral forms as 
were handed down to them from days of yore. Frequently 
also such a fuller collateral form became most current in po- 
pular language, and was completely conjugated with aor. &c., 
whilst the equally complete radical form receded from the 
language of daily intercourse, as TrepOw tirepaa, gave way to 
TTopOioj £7rop0rj(7a. 

Obs. 1. Such modifications of the radical form were frequently attended with 
differences in the signif. Instances of this kind belong to Dictionaries, or to the 
Section on the Formation of Words. But here, too, it is impossible to draw a strict 
line of demarcation. The idea of duration, which in those fuller forms was to be 
rendered more sensible as a stronger contrast to the idea of the aor., gave rise to 
the modifications of repetition, {iterative,) of frequency, {frequentative,) and of 
habit {habitual, usual). Thus it was very natural that of two co-existing forms of 
the pres. one adopted such a modification preferably to the other. For instance, 
the verb (popsu) made of <pkpo), which is formed perfectly analogous to the above- 
mentioned TTopQko), and to several other correct collateral forms, has, however, 
generally some more restricted peculiar means, as ' to wear a coat,' 'put it on 
usually.' But there is no fixed rule to be established on that head, and no writer, 
no poet in particular, considered himself bound by it. Without attending to any 
pai^ticular shade of meaning, the fuller form was frequently preferred whenever 
euphony, the convenience of the metre or stress to be laid on the thought, required 
it ; and (popsuj, for instance, was often employed for ^?pw. But all this can only 
be hinted at here. 

06s. 2. Whenever there was, along with the usual regular form of the verb, 
another rather deviating one in the p>i'es., this also produced, it is true, an anomaly 
in the language ; for the same writer being obliged to render the thought, for 
which he used, for instance, XifXTrdvu) in the pres.^ by Xei-ipo) m the fut., it may be 



234 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

said that the fut. of \ifx7rdvi0 is Xeixpu). Yet as in this case it is not two defective 
verbs which constitute an anomalous whole as in the former, but there merely is 
along with a regular pei'fect vei"b (\ei7rw, ^fl;//WJ &c.) a defective one, (Xt/xTravw,) 
which poets and orators use for their own purposes, all such defective coUatei'al 
forms must be left to dictionaries. The grammarian can only direct the attention 
of the learner to the analogy according to which the lengthened forms resemble 
each other in many instances, as will be seen in the following §§. 

5. But it does not follow that all the themes, which are or 
appear to be the basis on which some tenses were formed, 
have, therefore, existed. It is, indeed, possible that the simple 
radical form which is in the other tenses may have existed 
formerly in a pres. (compare § 83. Obs. 6.) ; but on the whole 
it is not probable : and it often would happen that the habit 
of seeing various formations combined ^in one verb, led to the 
preference of an easier conjugation, or introduction of some 
change, neither of which circumstances necessitates the suppo- 
sition of a corresponding pres. of a similar theme. Of this 
nature is, beside the instances mentioned in the two preceding 
§§, the transition of the verbs in w to the formation (Iw), tjo-w, 
&c. (see 8.) 

6. There are frequently several of these circumstances con- 
curring, so that the conjugation of a verb is mixed up with 
that of three or more forms. Thus we have of the primitive 
form IIHGO or IlAGll, barely the ao7\ iiradov : another form, 
strengthened with v by position, IlENGQ, maintained itself in 
the perf. Triirovda, &C.5 but both were forced to give way in the 
pres. and imperf. to the form Trao-xw, which now gives its name 
to the whole verb. From riETAQ comes Treratrw, &c. in the 
perf. pass, through the syncope iriirTafxai, whilst the lengthened 
form ireravwiuLi is alone in use in the pres. and imperf., &c. 

7. Some of the derivative forms of verbs are of such a 
nature, that there are scarcely any instances remaining in the 
language of a similar change of the radical verb ; ex. gr. in 
ayiviio from ayw, Trao-^w from nA912, IgBlw from f^w, iXavvuj 
from fXaw, &c. Most of them, however, conform with others 
to the same obvious analogy, which must be comprised under 
one point of view, the better to commit to memory the anomalies 
of their conjugation, and the numerous collateral forms of the 
whole verb, or its pres. tense, which occur especially in the 
Greek poets. 

Remember that, when in the following examples two forms 
are combined by AND, they are both in use; — where from is 



VERBS. 235 

mentioned, the latter verb either is quite obsolete, and to be 
recognised only in the tenses derived from it, or is found merely 
in the old poets; — and when for is mentioned, the first form is 
peculiar to the poets. Verbs belonging to the first and third 
category are not stated again in the list of Anomalous Verbs, 
unless there be some particular reason for it. 

8. One of the readiest changes was 

(i) — into fw, more rarely aw, contr. w : 
pLTTTd) and pnrrioj, KTviriw from KTYnO, (whence ektuttov,) 
yafiiw from FAMQ, (whence EyrjfjLa,) fivKaofiai from 
MYKQ, (whence eiuvkov,) Bafxau) from AEMO, (whence 
l^afx-nv,) Kvio and kuIw, ojQiw from Q0O (whence wo-w). 
Whenever the regular inflection of a verb was attended with 
any difiiculty, or might be productive of cacophony and in- 
distinctness, it was conjugated as if the pres. ended in iw. 
(See above, 5.) 

Obs. 3. To this class belong the verbs, of which the characteristic already is ^ or 
ip in the pres.. t\po},fiit. erpriacj, — av^oj, av%r]a()}. It is the same with the perf. of 
verbs in juw, see above, § 101. Obs. 9. Further, ju£i/a» fiifxkvrjKa, tvtttm, tvi^ko and 
rvTrrrjau}, fxkWoj fis\Xr]cro), 'ippoj spp^crw, KaOevdu) KaOsvSrjcro), &c. When the f lit. 
and other forms of such verbs have an s, as o-xOonat a.'xQiooiiai, (see also fidy^oiiai, 
edb), and aw, 2.), it may be viewed in the same light, yet it is more correct to re- 
cognise hei-e the old formation mentioned above, § 95. Obs. 15, which maintained 
itself from the same causes \vhich in other instances induced the formation of the 
fut. in 7]<T(ji). 

Obs. 4. Though both kinds of future do not presuppose, or at least do not neces- 
sarily presuppose, a ^?'es. tense in £0), yet such a pres. tense often was formed, 
sooner or later, in consequence of these /«t Thus undoubtedly originated, already 
in the oldest langviage, koXsoj, from KoKsau), (see the List,) and probably also 
piTTTiix) piTTToj, wliicli was mucli in use, from piTrrijuu). But the proof of this is 
rather difficult ; we are, therefore, perfectly warranted in deriving every fut. in 
kc(t) and r](JO) fi'om a, pres. tense in tw, if there be such a one in use. 

Obs. 5. We must, however, remark, that the lonians in particular are fond of 
forming single parts of the pr^s. or imperf, as if of £w, without the whole pres. tense 
occurring ; ex. gr. i^cpXie, e'l^fe, avfjiftaWsontvog, Tru^evixivog, Herod. irikZevv, for 
eirUi^ov, Homer, &c. 

9. Several dissyllabic barytone verbs, of which the first syl- 
lable has an £, give collateral forms by changing this £ into o, 
and taking the termination iw, 

(jilpto and (^o^io), Tpifni) and rpo|ulw, ^if^iw and ^o/ulu), iripOoj 
and TTopOid). Hither belong therefore the forms ^eSo- 
KTjpivoQ for de^eypivog, tjcrovrjjca, pBp6pr]Tai, toXr^ro, (see 
di)(opaij KTeivd), fiupopai, eiXw,) 
or the radical syllable has w with the termination aw, 

Tptt))(a(L>, Swjuaw, and also ftpiopaw, vwfJLau}, rpwTTau), arpto- 
(paoj, for Ppipw.) vipw, rpinu); crr|ol«/>w. 



236 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

The verb Trtrojuat alone has, beside the collateral forms Trorlojuat 
and TTioTCLOfiai, another Troraojuat. 

10. Verbs in w purum sometimes take the termination -(jkw, 
retaining their radical vowel, 

jr]pau) and yrjpaaKco, iXaoimaL and iXaaKOjuaij (paaK(o from 
OAH, (whence (jyrjaw, see § 109. I. 2.) pvojiai and pvGKo- 
juai, and lengthening the radical vowel yiyvuxiKu) from 
TNOO. 
But those in eoj most commonly become -i<jkco, 

KV£(i) KVLaKli), CTTEp^U) (TTepLdKO), 

and as the infin. aor. 2. terminates in dv, this sometimes occa- 
sioned a new formation in iu) (see § 111, 3.) out of it, and a 
pres. tense in iuKojy 

from 'EYPO, aor. avpov, evpsXv, — EvpidKuj, — fut. Evpridtji 
see also apTrXaKicFKU), cnrarpiaKio, eTravpicTKOfiat. 

Obs. 6. This form may be compared with the Latin verbs inchoative, since several 
of these verbs denote a beginning, increase, groicing ; but they seldom distinguish 
themselves by this signification from the simple form, as the Latin rubescere, for 
instance, does from rubere. We have, however, an instance of this kind in ri^aio, 
I am arrived at puberty, r](3d(TK0), I am growing up to puberty. Commonly the simple 
form had the same signif., or was quite obsolete. But verbs in <jki]J sometimes 
have a causative or transitive sense, (see § 1 13, 2. to cause or get another to be in 
the state, or to perform the action, of the simple verb,) ex. gr. [isOvio, I am drunk, 
HeOixTKu), I intoxicate (see the List) ; ttitt'ktko), I give to drinh, from irivu), linov. 
See below /3t6w, about jSiwcrrcojuat. The learner has been cautioned already (in the 
Obs. to § 103. II. 1. Note) carefully to distinguish the Ionic imperf. and aor. in gkov 
from these verbs. 

Obs. 7. The k in the termination ckw is, however, sometimes radical, and the <t a 
mere strengthening addition ; ex. gr. XdaKuj from AAKQ, t'CtTKU) (to liken, compare,) 
from £i/ca>, {to be like, resemble,) riTvaiao for r£v%w. The case is different with 
a.\v(TK(i), hdd<yKO}. 

11. Some verbs have Attic and Poetical collateral forms in 
9u), with different vowels preceding, 

(pXeyiOu) for ^Xayw, vEpWu) for vipw, (pOivvOw for (pOivu) : 

riyspiOovTai, rjEpidovTai are Epic forms for aydpovrai, 

aEipovTm ; BaXiOoj and (^aidio are verbs derived from the 

aor. 2. 

Hither belongs also the lengthening by means of the letters aB 

before the termination, which occurs even in Attic prose, but is 

found only as a prceterite, imperf., or aor. in -aQov, and in the 

dependent moods. Those which occur of this kind are, 

^hjjkclBhv, l^id)Ka9ov, from ^twKW, tt/ca^etv, UKaOoipi, from 
fiKW, a/ULVvaOsLv, a{ivvadoipr]v, from ajuvvio, dpyaOuv from 
eipyd), and the Epic jueTeKiaOov from klcj. 
Compare with them the forms introduced at a later period 



VERBS. 237 

instead of veoj, (/ spin,) aXau), Kvcm), vrjOct), a\{]9o), KvriOco : see 
also TrXrjOw and 7rp{]0(i)i in Trt/iTrXrj/xt and 7ri/z7rp rjjuf. 

12. Sometimes a v is inserted before the termination, 
SaKvoj from AAKO^ (whence tduKov,) see also below^ rifxvw, 

Kajuvu). 
Hence iio and vu) become — ivio and vvo), 

TTLvio from niO, riu) and tlv(o, Ovoj and Ovviv, Ivtvuj and 
Ivruvci)^ see also (pOlu), dvw, Idpvio, 
and aw becomes -aivwi seldom dvw, 

jSatvw from BAO, 00avw from <[>9AO. 

13. The trisyllabic and polysyllabic verbs in avw, and some 
in aivio, have, however, a theme in w for their radical form, 
which (coming from the aor. 2., see § 111, 3.) produces some 
tenses, as if of iw : 

av^ix) and av^avo), jdXaaravii) from BAAST12, aor. 2. £j3Xa- 

oTov, fut. piiXaGTi](Hx)y airex^dojuiaL and aire-xOdvoimai, see 

also below djuaprdvM, alcTOdvofjiai, &c. — oXiaOdviiJ and 

oXicrOaivoj, a07\ 2. wXicrOov, fut. oXiaOiiaoj. 

The verbs in dvw usually insert a nasal sound in the radical 

syllable of the verb, and shorten the radical vowel, when it is 

long, in this manner, 

Xdiro) and XifiTrdvu), cpevyu) and ^uyyavw, Ipevyto and 
epvyydvtx), X/j^w and XavOdvu). See also below, avdavio, 
Oiyyavoj, Xa/xjSavcu, Xayxo^voj, fxavOdvw, TrvvOdvofiaif 
Tvy\dvii), 

Ohs. 8. With respect to the quantity of the doubtful vowels before the final syl- 
lable v(t}, it may be remarked in general that tVw and vvm are long, ex. gr. Kpiv(o, 
opivio, j3paSvvio, but dvu short. However, if we follow the Epics, 

^9dvb), iKavo), Ki\dv(3i), 
are long : but the Attics are so far deviating, that they not only make 
riv(t), <p9iv(t), short, but also include again 

^Odvojj Kixdvio ^, in the analogy of the other verbs in dvcjj and make 
them also short. 

14. A very frequent change is that of 

0) into vviuL or vvvfjLL (see § 106. Obs. 8). 
a.) in vvfxi: o'/yw and olyvvfjii, ddKyvjuLi from AEIKQ, (whence 
Ssi^w, &c.) see below, dyvvfii, opvvfxi, ofxopyvvfxi, 
ZevywiJLi, &c., and also irraipoj and iTTdpvvfxai (primi- 
tive form I1TAP12, compare above § 92, 9). 

^ In this word the Attics made the syllable ki long, which else as a 7'edupl. is 
short, and actually is so in icixrjvai, &c. See in the List the quantity of the other 
forms belonging to (pOivoj and ^Odvoj. 



238 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

b.) in vvvfXi : jcpE/^aw and KpejULavvvfii, see below, KEpavvvfjn, 
TTETCLvwiuii, (iKsSavyu/if, ^£w and Z^vvvjLUf see below^ 
Kop^vvvjut, ajdevwiuLi, aTopevvvjULt, riuj and tivvvjuii, \6(i) 
and )(wyvvjut. See below Z(^vvvfjn, puyvvvixi, (jTpwvwiui, 
Xpdjvwiiii. 

15. A change^ which is rather confined to poets, is the in- 
sertion of a V before the termination atj, thus, 

a(x) into vaw, vrifii, 
^aiiaii) and dafuvau), ^aixvy]fxiy TTEpvaw, 7ripvrijui, from Trcpaw, 
and changing f into i, Kipvduj, KipvniiL, from Kspdo), 
KEpdviwiiit,) and also ttlXvyjiull, Trtrvrj/xt, aKi^vnfiii from 
TTcXacu, nETAO, SKEAAO., 

16. Several verbs, not only those in ixi, but many others, 
the redupl. in the^re^. 

yiyvwGKUj from FNOO, whence yvwo-ojum, fjiifxvricjKb), iri- 
TTpdcTKd), &c., and fxivd) and julljulvw, ttijutttw^ from nET£2, 
ylyvoiaat from FENQ. 

17. Lastly, some verbs form single tenses from very different 
radical verbs, exactly as in Latin fero, tuli, latum. And the 
very same verb is an instance of it in Greek, 

^IptOffut. oi(TW, aor, rjvEyKov* 
The other most decisive examples may be seen in the List, 
under alpiM, htthv, ip\ofjLai, laOitj, bpdu), Tpi\(s). Compare also 
the additional remarks to akiGKOjxm, IpiaQai, ^aw, Qiw, irXriaau), 
rXrivai, wviofxai. 

§ 113. — Anomaly of Signification. 

1. Whatever relates to the signif. of verbal forms is properly 
the province of Syntax, since it cannot be separated from the 
theory of the construction of the language. The most general 
points, without which the subject of conjugation could not have 
been understood, have already been stated; and the deviations 
of meaning, as far as they are more or less firmly established 
in some verbs, cannot be kept distinct from the anomaly of the 
formation of verbs, exactly as in Latin, ex. gr. odi, hortor, audeo, 
ausus sum ; but the instances in Greek are at once more various 
and frequent. 

2. We must, however, previously elucidate a subject, (which 
on the whole, concerns only the Dictionary,) because it enters 

2 The I in TrtTrrw is long according to the Etym. M., and the first syllable of 
Kixdvb), 'ir][xi, is acknowledged to be long. The inferences to be drawn from this 
with regard to redupl. in general, are stated in Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. 



VERBS. 239 

in various ways into the anomaly of the Greek verb, viz. the 
iMMEDiATiVE and CAUSATIVE signif. of verbs. The former 
denotes the action or situation as belonging directly or imme^ 
diately to the subject; the latter denotes the action or situation 
as being caused or effected in another. There is in the regular 
way a particular verb for each of these signif, though the 
CAUSATIVE verb may be derived from the immediative. Thus 
in Enghsh fall, lie, awake, are immediative, and from them 
are derived the causatives to fell, lay, awaken, which cause 
the falling, lying, awaking of another object. But it is an 
anomaly when, as is the case in all languages, one and the same 
verb combines both signif. ^ in Greek ; for instance, IXauvctv, 
iMMED. to ride in a coach, move hastily towards a place; caus. 
to drive ; KaOiZeiv, to sit and to set ; and in poetical language, 
(dpLCLpw, iMMED. to be full of something, to swell ; caus. to make 
swell; TToviw, immed. to feel pain, caus. to cause pain. 

Ohs. 1. It is a misleading practice of treating this subject as an intermixture of 
a trans, and intrans. signification ; for though the causatives are by their nature 
transitives, yet the immediatives may be as well transitives as intransitives ; for instance, 
the immediatives, to learn (caus. to teach), to drhik, are transitives. A second reason 
against that practice is, that a verb may combine both the trans, and intrans. signi- 
fication without belonging exactly to the class of verbs of which we are now 
treating ; for instance : intrans. (pevysiv, to flee, trans, (pevyeiv riva, to avoid one ; 
(TTTSvdeiv, to hasten, aTttvdeiv ri, to hasten something, but never (nrevStiv rivd, to 
cause one to hasten. 

Ohs. 2. Another case is, when both significations are combined in one verb, yet 
so that the caus. signif. belongs to the act., the immediat. to the pass, or middle 
voice ; for instance, 

didd<TK(jj, I teach, immediat. ^L^diJKOfxai, {I am taught, or T suffer myself 
to he taught^ I learn. See 1 30. 

3. The particular cases where a verb combines both signif. 
are stated in Dictionaries. We attend here only to those in- 
stances where different tenses of one and the same verb have 
different significations, as it has already occurred in the verb 
'/orrjjUi. We notice in particular that in several primitive verbs 
the 

fut. and aor. 1. act» express the caus, signif, 
and the aor. 2. and perf. act., principally the perf. 2., 
assume the immed., and in particular the intrans. signification. 
In verbs such as these, the intrans. tenses of the act. usually 

1 Ex. gr. in English to hum, immed. to be on fire, caus. to set fire to ; the Latin 
suppeditare, immed. to he at hand, caus. to cause something to he at hand, to supply ; 
the French sortir^ immed. to go out, caus. to take out; to d/rop ; immed. to fallj caus, 
to let fall. 



240 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

join in the same signification with those of the medium or of the 
pass. ; sometimes it occurs that in the present tense another and 
a distinct form is chosen for the one or the other meaning, 
ex.gr. ttivijj, imTiaKw. 

Obs. 3. I. Aorist. The instances in which this difference of meaning of the two 
aorists appears the most striking are the following : 

icpvcra, I brought forth (pres. 0uw) — 'i<j)vv, I became, (pres. (pvonai,) 

'ia^iaa, 1 extinguished {^pres. a(3svvvfn) — ea^rjVj I became extinguished^ {pres. 

(TJ3svvvfiai,) 
idvcra, I xcrapped up {pres. dvui) — Idvv, I went in, {pres, dvvu),) 
eTTKTa, I give to drink {pres. TrnriaKb)) — ettiov, I dranh, {pres. Trivu),) 
i(3i]v, I icent — e(3T}(xa, I brought {pres. (Baivu), I go). 
The same etrrijcra and larrjv fi'om "larrini. See the list of the Anom. for the fol- 
lowing verbs : dvkyvojv and avkyvMoa, elSiojv and £/3tw(Ta, ■^pei^a and ijpiKOV, 
■i]pei\l>a and I'lpntov ; aKiXKio, Tp's(p(o, oruygw, dpdpiaKd), opvvfxi. Even in those 
instances where there is no aor. 2. the aor. 1 . observes the same analogy, ex. gr. 
fieOvu), I am drunk, ttXtjOoj, I am full of something ; sfxsQvcra, I made drunk, 
e7rXr](Ta, I filled {fieOvaKM, TrifnrXrjfxi). In all those instances where there are two 
futures, the fut. act. has the cans, meaning of the aor. 1. and the fut. of the middle 
voice that of the immediative. 

II. Perfect. In all those forms where the active forms separate into the immed. 
and caus. meaning, the perf. 1. and 2. have always the immed., and side therefore 
with the aor. 2.- ; ex. gr. 

^vb), (pvaio, e<pv(Ta, to bring forth — e(i)vv, Tre^urca, {to become,) 
the same tcrrrjv and effrrjKa, tdvv and ^k^vKa, ta^rjv and ta^r]Ka, iaK\r]v and 
IcKkriKa, ijpnrov and ipripirra, &c. As the intrans. meaning predominates in the 

Perfectum 2. 

(see § 97. Obs. 5), this same tense expresses the immed. meaning in a great number 
of trans, verbs, and the intrans. signification in most instances, whilst the remaining 
tenses are supplied by the pass, and middle voice. Yet the perf 2. does not, on 
account of this peculiarity, belong to the 2^ass. or middle voice, as little as the perf. 1. 
TTs^vKa, i(TTi]Ka, which is exactly in the same predicament. Examples : 
dyvvfxi, — dyvvjxai, I break, intrans. ; perf. lay a, I am broken: 
da'iu), — daiofiai, I burn, intrans. : 
tyeipoj, — lyeipofxai, I awake, kypripopa, I watch : 
IXttoj, (7 cause to hope,) IXTtofiai and loXTta, I hope : 
Krjdw, {I afflict,) Krjdoixai and KSKTjda, I am anxious about any thing : 
ixaipu), {kKjxaivu}, I drive mad,) fiaivofiai and juljUT/va, I am mad : 
o'iyu), dvoiyu), dvi(i)X(^) — dvoiyofiai, I get open, dvkijiya, I stand open : 
uXXvfii, oXojXfKa, — oXXv/irtt, / go to ruin, oXojXa, I am undone : 
TTsiOu), TTSTTsiKa, — TTsiOofJiai, I believe, 7r£7rot0a, I trust : 
TrrjyvvjjLi, Tr-qy vvjiai, I become fixed, Trkirriya, I am fixed : 
pfjyvvfxi, pfjyvvjxai, I rend, intrans., tppojya, 1 am rent: 
(Tr]—oj, {I make putrid,) <rf]7ro[xai, I become putrid, asarjTra, I am putrid : 
TrjKio, {I melt, trans.,) rrjicofJLai, I melt, intrans. perf. rsTTjKa : 
(paivoj, {I show,) — ^aivofxai, I shine, perf 7T£(prjva. 
See about (pOsipoj the following Obs. The p)erf. of some deponents, like yiyvoiiai, 
ykyova, are explained in the same way : Trpdrrio is one of those where the pres. act. 
has the two meanings, and its two perf actually have the two different significa- 
tions : TrpaVrw, I do, make, perf. nkirpaxa, — TrpaVrw, / find myself, {ex.gr. KaXutg,) 
perf. TreTTpdya. 



VERBS. 241 

Ohs. 4. The pass, import which some of the immediatives assume is frequently 
of that kind, that it may actually be considered as a, passive. Such are the Latin 
neutro-passiva, which in our language are rendered by a passive, ex. gr. vapulo, / 
a7n or get beaten, caus.ferio. It is thus that the few instances in Greek, where par- 
ticular tenses of a verb, though of active forai, have yet a pass, signif., are accounted 
for; especially some verbs of the preceding Ohs., like ippojya, eaya, I am broken, 
forced asunder. The Homeric tstsvxojq, (see the Anom. rai^xw,) and the perf. 
idXujKa, (see aXicrKOfiai,) are still more exact instances. Fluctuating ones, between 
the trans, and this neutro-pass. signif., are of (pOeipoj, I spoil, (trans.) 

dis(p6opa, I have spoiled, and am spoiled, 

Tr'sTcXriya, I have struck, with some writers, / have been struck, 
and T'sTpo<pa, see the Anom. Tps(p(x). 

4, That the act, voice should have a pass, signif. is of most 
uncommon occurrence : see the preceding Obs, But it is fre- 
quently the case with the deponens, a verb which combines an 
act, signif. with a pass, or med. form. This anomaly is uncom- 
monly frequent in the Greek language. Whenever the act, 
form is quite wanting in a pass, verb, which has an act, signif., 
it constitutes a real or defective deponens, which, according as 
the aor, is taken from the pass, or med., is (§ 89, 3.) a deponens 
pass, or deponens medium, 

Obs. 5. The number of deponentia media is by far larger than that of deponentia 
passiva. Some deponent, pass, are to be found in the list of the Anom., as dxOoi.iai, 
/3ouXo/xai, deofiai, dspKOfxai, dvvafxai, £7rtjU£Xojuat, eTriarafjiai, Kpsnafxai, fiaivonaif 
oiofxai. It is well to impress on the memory the following verbs : — 

kvOvfisofiai, I take to heart, and 



dXdoixai, I roam (wander), 
dadofxai, I feel disgusted, 
(Spyxdofiai, I roar, 
ivavTioonui, I oppose, 
ivvokonai, I consider, a.udLdiai'osofiai, 
dirovokofxai. 



evOvn'sofiai, 7rpo0vjU£O//ai, 
evXapkoixai, I am on my guard, I 

take care, 
Xid'^ofxai, (poet.) / avoid, 
as(3oixai, I revere, adore. 



Here must be also mentioned those deponentia media, in which the active form is 
likewise used, though with a different signif. ; they are therefore real media, from 
which voice they mostly form iheiv future. 



altyxvvoiiai, I am ashamed, 
dvidojxai, I am grieved, 
av^dvop.ai, I increase, 
dcTKBOfj-ai, 1 2oractise, 
diraXXaTTOiiai, I witMraw, 
(pofSsofiai, I fear, 



Koindofiai, I sleep, 
KaTaKXlvojxai, 1 lie down, 
Tztpaionai, I cross over, 
TriiBofxai, I obey, 
TTopevo/jiai, I travel, 
fvujxkonai, I feast, 
■ijdofiai, I delight, 

and the Anom. SiaX'sYOfjLai, aevofiai, repTrofxai, ^aivofxai. The following verbs take 
the aor. sometimes from the medium, sometimes from the passive : — 



aictofxai, I am afraid, 

dpvso[Jiai, I deny, 

avXiZofiai, I pass the time in an avXrj, 

Qoivdojiai, I am feasting, 

ifitiponai, I desire. 



fx'fucpoixai, I chide, 
veixsadoj^ai, I am indignant, 
opkyofxai, I desire, covet, 
Tnipdofxai, I try, undertake, 
(pLXoriii6o[xai, I am ambitious. 



and the Anom. dyajxai, epafiai, ovofxai, valonai. 

Lastly, there are verbs which in Greek must be considered as real passives, 
though in our language tliey can only be rendered in an intransitive way : — 

R 



212 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



(Spsxofiai, I am wet, 
iiTeiyofiai, I hasten, 
TTviyoixai, lam suffocating. 



(Trjirofxai, I rot, 
rrjKoixai, I am melting, 
(p6sipofxai, I go to ruin. 



Ohs. C. But the Greeks often allow themselves to form tenses with the pass. 
signif. from a deponent. This is done 1.) in the perf., Avhere the construction 
immediately shows whether it is to be understood in the pass, sense ; ex. gr. Plato 
de LL. 710. TidvTa dinipyaaTai t(^ Qei^, (from aTrepydKonai, I make, perform,) 
where the dat. must be rendered by the English by. All has been made, completed by 
the Divinity. 2.) In the aor. pass., when the deponens as such has an aor. med., ex. gr. 
(Bid^oiJiai, I force, l^taad\Lr\v, I forced, \.^id(sQr\v, I was forced ; S£E,dfisvog, who has 
taken, ^£x0£/Cj accepted. 

5. It frequently happens that the fut. act. of act. verbs is 
little or not at all used, and the 

Fut. Medii 

has the trans, or intrans. signif. connected with the act., when 
the rest of the med. with its peculiar meaning does not occur of 
such a verb. This is the case with a number of the most 
familiar verbs, ex. gr. cikovio, I hear, aKovaofiai, (never aKoiKju),) 
I shall or tvill hear. 

Obs. 7. We subjoin some fut. of this kind : dyvorjoofiai, q^crofiai, (from a^w,) 
diravTriaoiiai, aVoXatxrojitai, (Sadiovfiai, (ioriGOfxai, yeKdaofjiai, ytjpdaofJiai, kyKw/xi- 
daofjiai, knaivkaonai, iTTiopKriaoixai, Qavixdaoyiai, Qripdaojxai, and Orjpevaofxai, 
fcXsi/zojuai, KoXdaofiai, oifxw^ofiai, 7rr}dr](70fj.ai, Trvi^Ofiai, cnyri(TOfiai, and GiojTTrjffofxai, 
aKd)\poixai, CTcovldaoixai, avpi^ofiai, TwQdaoiiat, xixjprfaonai : to which must be 
added the verbs djxl and oloa. See also in the list of Anom. Verbs especially 
afiapTCLVU), (Saivh), /3ioci), jSXwcica), yiyvuj(TK(o, ^dici'w, ^apQdvu), dilaai, didpd(jK(jJ, 
6eu), Oiyydvb), OptjaKO}, OpwaKU), Kaixvo), /cXaiw, Xay%aVw, XanJidvM, fiavBdvu), vsu>, 
{vivcofiai,) oixvvfxi, bpdu), 7caiZ,u), 7racr;i^w, TrtTrrw, ttXsuj, irvku), psoj, tiktu), rp£%w, 
rpwyw, (psvyii), x^^^' ^^ must, however, be observed that practice was as little 
fixed and constant in this respect as in others : many fut. of the act. may be met 
with where other writers used the fut. med.^ ; but we must carefully examine 1.) 
whether such passages may not be corrupted, and 2.) whether the writer does not 
belong to the late writers, or what are called Koivoi, who often forsook again the 
Attic usage in this respect *. 

6. But the fut. med. was also employed as pass. : yet this 
usage was not so steady in particular verbs as the preceding ; 
it depended chiefly on the exigencies of euphony, and conse- 
quently, with poets, of the metre. In polysyllabic verbs the 
still longer fut. pass, was thus avoided ; ex. gr. u)(f)e\i)(jovTaL for 
io(pE\ri6rf(jovrai, iripd-^^adai (Herod. 7, 149.) for 7rtpLe(})9ri(T£(j6ai, 
and the same in aficpiajdriTdv, ojuLoXoyttv, ctTraXXaTTtiv, (^vXcltthv, 

3 Notliing, for instance, is more easy or common than to mistake the Attic form 
of the 2 2^^'>'^' ''*^^' "^ ^h (foi" y?) f^J^ t^^-t of the act. in tiq. Hence in several 
passages, where we have ^evK^Lg, for instance, we ought to read tpev^H, which form 
of the 2 pers. was not so familiar to transcribers. 

^ The learner must be careful not to mistake the conj. aor. 1. for the fut., ex.gr. 
in Nvv oLKOvad) avOig, § 139. Obs. 1. 



VERBS. 243 

yviivaZeiv, a^iK^v, Zvi^iovv. There are, however, instances also 
of shorter verbs, as j^Xaiperai, Opixperai^ ola^rai, 

Obs. 8. It may easily be supposed that this was rather uncommon in verbs, of 
which the med. voice had a siguif. which corresponded too closely with the trans- 
itive act. one ; but it occurred still less, and perhaps not at all, in those verbs of 
which the fut. med., according to Text 4, steadily had the signif, of the act. 

Obs. 9. There are very few instances, and these few chiefly in Epic poetry, where 
the aor. ined. too occurs as pass. Yet some compounds of ax^oOai are also used 
passively by the Attics, as Karaax^aOai, ofxtvoQ, Eurip. Hipp. 27. Plato Phcedr. 49. 
(TV(Tx6[j,evog, Thecet. 58. 

7. We rank among the instances of an anomalous signif. of 
the tenses those in which the perf. has the signif. of the pres, 
tense. We shall easily conceive this transition from the former 
tense to the latter, when we consider that in using the perf. we 
generally think less of the action which is past than of the 
state which resulted from it. Thus TWvrjKa properly signifies 
/ have died, but on thinking of the state which resulted from 
it, as still continuing, it means / am dead : and in this sense it 
is a pres, tense. In other verbs the original perf. was still 
more lost sight of, ea^. gr. Kraofxai, I acquire, consequently 
KeKT-niuLaL, I have acquired. But the consequence of acquisition 
is possession; hence KiKTmiai was taken to denote I possess, 
without thinking any longer of any previous acquisition. In 
all these cases it follows of course that the plusq. becomes the 
imp erf. 

Obs. 1 0. Thus it is not exact to assign to the verb ddm in the pres. tense both 
significations / see and hiow ; e'iSoj meant / see, perceive, and the perf. olda, I have 
perceived, and consequently knoio. 

Obs. 11. But when ideas were nearly related^ the pres. tense itself miglit easily 
take the meaning of the new derivative pres. expressed by the perf. or vice versa. 
Thus it happened, especially in poetry, that the pres. and perf. frequently had the 
same signif. ; ex. gr. [xeXsi, properly, it goes to the heart, it concerns, fisfxrjXe, it went 
to tlie heart; hence both signify ii grieves; ^IpKw, I perceive, deSopKa, I have per- 
ceived ; hence both mean / see. 

Obs. 12, The application of these principles to occurring instances, of which the 
most familiar are noticed in the list of Anomalous Verbs, must be left to individual 
notice, as the same case may often be viewed in different lights. But we must 
particularly notice some instances, where in Epic poetry the plusq. supplies the 
place of the aor. or of the imperf., though the perf. of that verb does not occur as a 
pres. tense. See in the list ^aivu), (SdWu). 

Obs. 13. The case of the perf. becoming the pres. tense, is particularly frequent 
in verbs denoting a sounding and raising of the voice ; Ksicpaya, I cry out ; and 
further, XsXaKa, ysyujva, dvcjya, (3i^pvxa, [i'E[iVKa, nkfxriKa, KSKXayya, rsrpiya. 



R 2 



214 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§ 114. — List of Anomalous or Irregular Verbs, 

PREFATORY REMARKS. 

The following List comprises the anomalous verbs which 
occur in common prose^ in the most familiar dialects^ and in 
poetry. Whenever such a verb is not of frequent occurrence, 
or when it is poetical, it is printed in small type ; the same is 
the case with verbs in use, stated merely on account of some 
anomaly, with which they are attended in poets. Whatever 
refers in all other verbs to their use in prose is printed in a 
larger type. 

2. Forms which are completely obsolete, and merely pre- 
supposed for the purpose of explanation, are printed in the List 
and in the whole work in capital or initial letters, that the eye 
may not accustom itself by the usual print to a number of use- 
less imaginary verbs, and thus become less able to detect 
barbarisms. But every theme which really occurs, were it but 
once, in the ancient poets, is printed in the usual type ; yet it 
does not follow that the 1 pers. of the pres. tense must occur 
on that account. Any form of thejore^., and even imperf., may 
in most instances serve as a proof or evidence of the whole 
pres, 

3. The imaginary obsolete themes (which, however, have 
not been stated in every place, as the more advanced scholar 
may supply them of himself) are grammatically formed after 
the analogy of other existing verbs, but their existence is by 
no means historically proved ; whence it happens that the same 
form is often derived from different themes in different Gram- 
mars, according as one grammarian judges of the origin of a 
form differently from the other. 

4. In addition to the anomalous part of each verb stated in 
the List, its use, as far as it is not understood of itself, is fully 
explained ; but always (according to § 104, 2.) under the sup- 
position that the usual /z<^., the aor, 1. and j^er/. 1. are the tenses 
in use of any verb of which the fut., aor. and perf. are not 
expressly mentioned. Whenever there is an aor. 2. or perf. 2., 
or when the fut, med. supplies the fut. act.^ these forms are 
fully stated. The numbers 1 and 2 are seldom annexed to 
these tenses, because they are known of themselves. If, for in- 
stance, a/mapTuvio is solely attended with aor. rtfiapTov, it shows 
that this verb barely has this aor. 2. and no aor. 1. — When 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 245 

MED. is found alone, it denotes that the med. or middle voice 
occurs. 

5. The verbal forms to be met with in Greek writers are 
generally indicated simply by the 1 pers. indie, of the tense 
employed, but sometimes single forms are stated, as a. pers. of 
the pi., a conjunctive, &c. This is done for safety, because in 
some more uncommon Epic and other forms we cannot always 
conclude that the 1 pers. indie, belonging to them must have 
been in use. 

6. The same signif., be it act., pass., med., or intrans., which 
\\\e pres. has, is likewise that of every tense to which there is no 
particular signif. subjoined. Thus, for instance, if with j3ouAo/xat 
ihefut. med. P>ov\i]GOixai, and the aor.pass. e(5ovX{]9riv are noticed, 
it show^s that only these two forms occur in the sense of the 
pres. tense f^ovXofjLai, and that consequently there is neither an 
aor. t(5ov\Y)(Tdjur)v, nor afut. j3ouXr]0//cro/iat occurring. 

7. To enable the student to consult the List more readily, 
obsolete and imaginary forms have been inserted in alphabetical 
order wherever it was thought necessary, and not only those of 
which the supposition is calculated for elucidation, but also 
many specious ones, when a change not grounded in the regular 
conjugation (by syncope, for instance) is referred to a fic- 
titious theme. Supposing, therefore, that he knows, on read- 
ing the inflections which occur, how to form a regular theme 
according to the general rules, he will find the radical form in 
its proper place along with the needful information of what is 
actually in use; thus, for instance, for k-n-pdOr^v, he will find 

nPA, see TTtTTjOaO-fCW. 

8. The List, moreover, is so complete, that nothing occurs in 
known prose-writers and poets which does not find its expla- 
nation here. Whatever is met with in authors of less note, or 
in less familiar dialects, has been noticed here, and in the whole 
course of this Grammar, only as far as it explains the connexion 
between the grammatical forms and the dialects, or tends to 
elucidate one particular dialect. 

9. With regard to Epic poetry, the student must bear in 
mind that the later Epics of the Alexandrian and subsequent 
periods, like Callimachus, Apollonius, were mere learned poets, 
who did not by any means derive all the forms which they em- 
ployed, from the actual stock of the language, but copied or 
imitated them from Homer and other ancient poets. Nothing 



246 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

but what is found in Homer and Hesiod, and in some frag- 
ments of those old times, can safely be looked on as belonging 
to the general analogy of the language. The peculiarities of 
later writers may also belong to it, since they had older 
authors, lost to us, before their eyes ; but historical certainty is 
wanting. Whenever we have been able fully to trace the form- 
ation and use of a verb in the old writers, we have had no 
regard to the peculiarities of the later ones, or it is only in very 
important instances that we have referred to them by name. — 
It also follows from § 1, 11. that whatever is noted as Homeric, 
(expecially with the mention of Homer,) does not exactly occur 
exclusively in Homer's Poems, but is likewise to be met with 
in the subsequent Epic Poets, to whom Homer served as a 
model. 

10. And lastly we observe that we have generally omitted 
those collateral forms, which, though perfectly synonymous 
with a form more in use, do not create any difficulty, being 
either a pres. tense, or easily reducible to a pres. tense, and 
consequently readily found in the Dictionary. All which Gram- 
mar can do wdth respect to the formation of such collateral 
forms is to direct the attention of the learner to some general 
analogies; and this has been done in the preceding Sections, 

A. 

'Aaw (/ hurt). Homer has, of this theme, the 3 pres. pass. 
aaTai, aor. 1. act. aaaa, contr. acra, {Od, A. 61.) pass, and 
med. adcrOrjv, aaaajurjv^. Both a are sometimes long, some- 
times short; the case is the same with the verbal adj. 
aarog, whence with the a priv. aaarog ( v^ — ow ), invincible, 
which cannot be hurt, inviolable^ Horn. From this old form 
came the subst. arr] (a), and thence shortening the a the 
new verbal form draii) used by the Attic Poets. 

Compare also aw, / satiate. 

ayafxai, {I admire,) pres. and imperf. like "iGTaixai, fut. ayaGo/uiai, 

aor. rjyadOrjv, Epic r^yacrdfjirjv. 

The Epic jyres. tenses dydofiai, dyaiofiai, occur with the collateral 
meanings of to envy, to be angry. 

* AQ might also be assumed as the radical theme, from which the other forms 
Avere derived by lengthening. But the lengthening of a long vowel which did not 
originate in contraction, (aw, acw, daa,) would be contrary to analogy : ddrai, on 
the contrary, really belongs to aw, I satiate. The Homeric verbal adjectives ddarog 
and oLTog are, moreover, best explained in this way. See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 56. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 247 

ayeipu), {I assembk,) per/, pass, dyrjyfpfiai, aor. 2. med. infin. Epic dyepeaOai) part, 
dypofxevog. See § 110, 4. For rjyepkQovTai see § 112, 11. 

ayvvixL, (/ break,) fid. a^u) (§ 106, 8). The preterites have 
the syllabic augment, (§ 84. Obs. 5.) aor. ta^a, (Horn. 
ri^a,) aor. pass, layrjv («). The per/. 2. eaya {Ion. tnya) 
has the pass, signif. I am broken, forced asunder (§ 113. 
Obs. 3). 

The aor. 2. pass. Idyrjv was also shortened in the Epic metre. Compare 
e7rXt)yT]v and KaTETrXdyijv, 

This augment is found even in forms which from their nature ought not to 
have any; ex. gr.,2^art'icip. compos. Kared^avTeg, Lysias p. 158. Reiske^. — 
The Kavd^aiQ of Hesiod stands for icard^aiQ {opt. aor. ^). 
dyopevuj, see httuv. \ dypofisvog, see dyeipu. 

ayw, {I lead, bring,) has in aor. 2. a redupl., i\yayov, ayayuv, &c. 

(§ 85. Obs. 2.) perf.^xP- ^^^ «7^'?ox«5 (§ ^^- ^^^' ^•) P^'^f* 
pass, ^yiiai. — MED. 

The aor, 1. T/^a, d%ai, a^acrOai, occurs also, but seldom in the Attics *. 
See § 96. Obs. 9. about the Homeric imper. d^sre. 

'A A — The forms ciao), aaai, {to satiate,) which are classed under 
this root, may be seen below in a(o, but the following 
belong hither, viz. adrjaai, adrjKlvai, {to be satiated, weary of 
a thing,) as if from AAEQ, which in Homer are commonly 
written a'^'^r\Gai, &c.' 

aSfTv, &c. see av^avuj, 

dsipu), see alpcj, \ 'AEQ, see dijfii and aw, 2. 

drj^u, (J bloic, breathe, see aoj,) keeps its t] everywhere, injin. di]vai, pass, drjuaij 
commonly with the act. signif., but also to be bloicn, Od. ?. 131. 

alvkw, see § 95. Obs. 4. 

atpEw, {I take,) aipi]<jw, — \ipe9r]v, (§95. Obs. 4.) aor. act. elXov, 
lAav, &c. from 'EAQ.— MED. 

2 See Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 56. and Phced. 79. The endeavour to distinguish 
this verb from Kardyio has probably produced this striking anomaly, which was 
favoured by the circumstance that this augment is irregular even in its proper place. 

^ This singular form is satisfactorily explained by the digamma. The verb ayw, 
dyvv/xi, is one of the words in which we trace in Homer the vestiges of the digamma 
nrientioned in § 6. Obs. 3. This verb was originally FAFQ, and this F was a con- 
sonant (V). On being compounded with icard, it became of course KAFFAFQ, just 
as j3dX\(i) became Ka/3,3a'/\Xw, &c. (§ 117. Obs. 2.) Xo wonder that this double 
spiritus, chained, as it were, by the metre, was retained here, whilst the digamma 
vanished everywhere else. Considering the intimate relation, or rather what may 
be termed in some respects the identity of the sounds Y and F, U and V, (see the 
Xote to p. 8.) it was very natural that it became a v. Compare below evadov in 
dvcdvoj. 

* We must guard against mistaking for this aor. that of the Attic verb arru} for 
dtffau), which sometimes approximates to it in signification. 

^ This spelling has been introduced by grammarians, because some kindred 
words (as d^og, satiety) are short, and yet Homer employs the first syllable of the 
verb always as long. — See Buttm. Lexilogus, II. 86. 



248 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

It has 2ifiit. which very seldom occurs, viz. tXw, ex. gr. Aristoph. Eq. 290. 
Non- Attic writers formed the aor. 2. med. in -cifirjv {dtptiXaro^ instead of -sro. 
See § 96. Obs. 8). The lonians had a particular redupl. in the perf. dpaiprjKa, 
apaipj/juai, with the spiritus lenis. In the sense of to take, catch, lay hold of, 
aXiaKOfxai may be considered as its real pass. : see below. 

aipco, contr. of dtipoj, {I lift up,) is regular. Observe only, 1.) that the Attic Poets 
use the unaugmented moods of the aor. 2. med, (ex.gr. dpoifxrjv, Soph. EL 34.) 
when they want a short syllable, instead of using the usual aor. I., of which 
the a is long according to § 101. 06s. 2.; — 2.) that Homer in the same case 
also uses the indie, aor. 2. med. without the augment, (dpofirjv,) but else generally 
in the indie, the aor. I. and in the other moods only the aor. 2. (^pa/ijjv, — 
dp'taOai, dpoifirjv, &c.); — 3.) that the Epics use as imperf. {floated, was hoisted, 
hung,) the phsq. dojpTo instead of ripro or r/gpro, see § 97- Obs. 2. — 4.) that the 
Attic Poets also make the a of ihefut. dpS) long, as if it were a contraction of dtpS). 
See Buttm. Compl. Gr. Gi\ For ritpkQovTaL see § 112, 11. See also dpw^iai. 

alaOdvofxai, {I perceive, am sensible of,)fut. alcrOrjaoiuLai, &c. — aor. 
ycrOo/xrjv, (§ 112^ 13.) from the more uncommon jore^. aiaOo- 
fiat. 

ctKaxi'^w, {I grieve,) derives from the theme AXQ, which takes an £ in the conju- 
gation, the following forms, aor. ijKaxov, dKaxiiv,fut. dKaxrjau), aor. 1 . ^feax»j(Ta 
(§ 112, 16). — MED. dxofiai or dx^vfiai, {I afflict myself) aor. r}Kaxonriv,perf. 
(/ am grieved,) aKrix^f^ai, and without any augment dKdxrjjJiai. See about 
dKrjxsdarai, the Note to Obs. IV. 5. to § 103, and about the accentuation of 
dKrjx^fiivog, {II. <t. 29.) dKaxfifxtvog, dKdxri<^Oai,% 111. Obs. 2. The part. pres. 
act. dx£(oi', -ovaa, {afflicted, grieving, sighing,) has the same intransitive signif. 

ttKaxfiBvogy {sharp-pointed,) part, perf. pass, of a verb AKQ, 
(from which are derived the subst. a/cr) and a/cwKr), a point, 
edffe,) with the Attic redupl., but no temporal augment, 
and retaining ^ before ju. (compare § 98, 2. with § 
23. Obs.) 

aXaojuai, (I stray,) has according to § ill. Obs. 2. ^perf. aXaXr)- 
juai, a\aXri(j9ai, aXaXrifjLevog., which becomes the p7^es. tense, 
and is synonymous with it. 

aXi^u), {I ward off,) fat. aX^^aw, (§ 112, 8.) and (from AAEK12) 
aor. med. aXi^aodai, see Complete Gr. Gr. § 96. Obs. 10. 

This root AAEKQ, AAKQ, gives also the Poetical aor. {jXaXKov, (aXaX/cov,) 
dXaXKaiv, dXaXKOJv, &c., with the redupl. according to § 85. 06s. 2. 
dXsofiai, {I avoid,) aor. 1. r}X(.vd}xr}v , (§ 96. 06s. 1.) inf. dXtvaaQai and dXkaaOai, 
con]. dXevtrai for -r]Tai, (Homer,) opt. dXkairo, part. dXsvdnevog. 

aXiu), {I grind or pound into powder, Lat. molo,) fut. aXicrb), 
[aXC),) perf. pass. aXi^X^aiuai: aXriOw (§ 112, 11.) was an- 
other form of the pres. 

aXrivai or aX{]fx^vat, indie. idXr}v, see aXw. 

aXiGKOfiai, (/ am taken,) forms its tenses from 'AAOQ, hence 
fut. aXh)(TOfiaL, and (with the act. form, but pass, signif.) 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 249 

the syncopated aor. (§ 110, 6, and Ohs. \, 1.) rjXwv^ better 
kaXwv, pi. kaXw/iev, with long a, but the unaugmented forms 
with short a, infin. aXtovai, conj. akCj, tog, &c. opt. aXotrjv, 
{Ion. aXwrjv,) part. aXovg, perf. (likewise with pass, signif.) 
r]XwKa and kdXujKa with a. 

Homer also has aXovre with long a, II. 5. 487 : aiptiv was used for the 

act. of this verb ; dXicTKOfxai is its pass., but only in its strict sense. See 

dvaXiffKu). 

aXiTaivii}, {I tra7iSffresSf sin,) fut. oXiTrifTMi aor. rjXirov (§ 112, 13). 

The act. and ined. have the same signif. The adj. part. dXiTrjixsvog, 
{simier,) Od. d. 807, may be explained by the pe^'f. according to § 111. Ohs. 2. 

AAK, — aXaXKHv, see aXi^u), 

aXXo/iai, {I leap,) is regular, aXovf.iai, &c. 

Practice is wavering in the ao7\ between ao7\ 1. yiXdfXTjv, liXaaQai, 
(a, § 101. Ohs. 2.) and aor. 2. rjXSfirjv, dXkaQai (a). Homer merely has the 
syncopated aor. (§ 110, 8.) which takes the spiritus lenis, and of which there 
is the 2 and 3 joers. dXao, dXro, p>art. dX/xevog, liraXfitvog^. The conj. is 
also commonly, but erroneously, found with the lenis, dXrjrai, and shortened 
dXerai {Ohs. V. 15. to § 103). 

AAO, — see aXio-zcojuat and avaXiaKU). 

aXv(TK(i), {I shun, escape,) fut. aXv^w ^, &c. It is different from 

aXvu) or aXvacTU), Hom. (I am beside myself.) 
aX(l}aivu) or aXcpdvtj, [I acquire,) aor. 2. ^X^ov, aX<^ot/xf. 
ajuLapravu), {I err,) fut* afiapTrjcroiJiai, perf. r]}iapTr]Ka, aor, r]fiagTOv 

(§ 113, 13). 

Instead of ijfjLaprop Homer has i'][i(3poTov with the lenis, (compare 
aXXofxai,) with a transposition, (§ 96. Obs.T.) and with the insertion of j3 
according to § 18. 06s. 1, and compare § 110, 11,2. Note. 

ai.ip>Xi<jKbi, [I render abortive, miscarry,) fut. a/ij3Xwo-w, &c. from 
ajuf^Xoijji of which the pres. occurs only as a compound, 
l^afJLJdXovv, &c. 

a^7r£;)(w and apLiriGyyovpiai, see t\(.o, 

afiTrXaKLCTKU), (/ commit a fault, err,) fut. a/xTrXa/c/jcrw, aor. i]^~ 
TrXttfcov, apurXaKuv, (§ 112, 10.) also afi^XaKiaKii), and with 
a short initial syllable airXaKuv, aiK^dvvvixi, AM^YEQ,, 
see above tvvvfii, § 108. III. 

avaivojuLm, {I refuse, deny,) aor. i]vr]vafi7]v, av{]vaadai. 

^ See about the lenis, § 6. Ohs. 2, and compare dixaprdvu). The length of the a 
denoted by the circumflex is an anomalous augment ; whence tTraXro, not sTraXro. 

^ This verb evidently is derived from dXsvofiai : the cr is not intercalated in the 
jyres. (after the analogy of § 112. Ohs. 7-) but omitted in the fut. Compare 
6idd(XK(i). 



250 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

This verb is not a compound, (see Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 63, 10.) The aor. 
is perfectly regular, like eXvfir]vdfxr}Vf and the like. But there is no other 
tense to be met with. 

avaXicTKw, [I consume, expend,) forms its tenses from ava\6b), 
imperf. avaXovv, Both av/jXwcra and avaXioaa were used, 
and as a double compound Karnvakuiaa, and the same in 
the perf. 

This xerh differs from aXiaKOfJiai in the quantity of the a, and the regu- 
larity of the signif. There is no aor. 2. 

avSdvu), {T please,) imperf. ijvdavov, tavdavov, erivdavov, fut. aorj(r(t), aor.sdSov, 
iidov, perf. 'idda, {Dor. tdda,) see § 112, 13. 

This Ionic and Poetical verb must be considered as perfectly identical yv^ith 
the regular ijdu), {I delight,) ijdonai, {I am delighted,) which only differs in 
construction. Compare XavOdvcj and \rj6o}, and the like. — Homer has also 
tvadov ^ for aSov in the aor. 

dvkffei, dvsaaifxi, see § 108. I. 4. 

dvrivoQa, a perf. with the signif. of the pres., I pierce, penetrate through, from a theme 
AN9Q or ANE9Q, whence comes dvOog, flower, and dvOkia, I bloom,see § 97. 
Obs. 2, and compare below evrjvoOa. See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 63. 

avoiyw or avoi'yvvfXL, see diyw, 

avtjya, {I order, command,) is an old pe)"/, 1 pers, pi. avioyfiev, 
imper. avwxQi, avtjyiTio, avtjyera, or irregular avw^dw, 
avojx^^} (§ ILIO. Obs. 5.) plusq. as imperf. [ijvwyeiv,) Ion, 
rjVMyea. 

This perf. having the signif. of the pres. originated the corresponding 
form, (Herod. 7, 104.) 3 pers. pres. dvojyti, imperf. rjvbjyov, fut. dx/w^w, 
aor. i'jvio^a.- — The perf . dvcoya itself never has the augment. 

aTravpdb), see AYP. 

dira^hKU), {I deceive,) aor. ij7ra(pov, uTra^MV, &c. is an aor. redupl. (§ 85. Obs. 2.) of 
'A$Q, (whence dfij and uTTTOixai,) properly / touch, feel, stroke, L&t. palpo, 
from which the new pres. has been formed, according to § 112, 10 ; fut. 
dTra(p^G(ij. — The middle voice has the same signif. as the act. 

ditoXavu), augment, see § 86, 06s. 2. | aTrovpag, see AYP. 

'dpdoixai, Att. 'apdojiai, depon. med. (7 supplicate, imprecate.) We find only once 
(Od. %. 322.) the infin. act. dprjuevai, perhai:)S aor. 2. joass. of APOMAI, see 
Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. — The Homeric part, 'dprju'svog has a different 
signif. ; it means injured, worn down. 

dpap'iaKu) {I fit, adapt). The radical theme APQ gives the fut. dpcTb), aor. 1. 
ripcra, dpaai, &c. (§ 101. Obs. 3.) aoi\ 2. ijpapov, (see § 85. Obs. 2.) from 
which came the new pres. (according to § 112, 10.) imperf. dpdpiaKt, Od. ^. 
23. — But the theme APQI combines with the causative signif. to fit, the imme- 



s This form too (like Kavd^aig, above, under dyvvni) is explained by the Epic 
digarama, for the verb dvddvo) is one of the words alluded to in § 6. Obs. 3. From 
FAAQ comes the syllabic augment in 'iada, and this evadev, which is derived from 
the double F after the augment (EFFAAEN, like i\\a(3sv) : the digamma here 
made a position, and could tlierefore not be dropped entirely, as almost everywhere 
else. The seeming importance of this ev (as if it were meant for the adverb well) 
may have favom^ed the retention of this form. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 251 

diative or intrans. one, to be adaj^ted, quadrate tcith (see § 113, 2). The per/. 2. 
dpdpa, Ion. dpripa ^, as a pi'es. tense has only this latter intrans. meaning 
{part. fern. Epic dpapvla) : the aor. ^jpapov, though less frequent, is like- 
wise intrans. The per/, pass, ciprjpsjjt.ai^'', formed after the analogy of the 
fut. dpE<7(o, agrees in meaning with dprjpa. This/?(if. itself, with other forms 
derived from it, (see dpsaKU),) has obtained the particular signif. to adapt 
one's self, to conciliate, which, some of the above forms also have sometimes 
{Tl. a. 136. Soph. El. 147). — "Apjxsvog (fitting) is the syncopated aor. 
(§110,8.) 

api(7K(i), (/ satisfy, please, conciliate,) fut. apiaw, perf pass. 

TlpEGliaL. — MED. 

It is derived from APQ, of which dp'iau) (according to § 95. Ohs. 15.) is 
the old fut., which exclusively assumed this particular signif., and produced 
the rest of the tenses along with the new pres. tense. 

apvvfxai, (belonging to alpto, as TrrdpvvixaL does to iTTaiptt),) is 
used instead of alpofxm in a particular sense (to get, obtain, 
as the reward of exertion, or as booty.) The rest of the 
tenses, except the pi^es. and imperf, are derived from the 
radical form,/w^. apov/iai, aor. rjpoiarjv [apovro, apof/urjv"). 

dpTrd^bj, {I plunder,) has with the Attics dpizdaLo, (apTra'cro/xai,) i^piraKa, r/pTraV- 
9riv, See, Avith the later writers, [koivoI,) dpird^n), ripTrdyijv, &c. Homer 
has both foi'mations (see § 92. Obs. 1). 
APQ, see dpapicTKix). 
av^io and av^dvu), {I inc7'ease,) fut. av^riau) (§ 112, 13). — The^ass. with the fut. of 

the middle voice, I groic. 
iiYP, to this root, with its principal meaning to taJce, belong the following two com- 
pounds 12 : 

1.) diravpaoj {I take aicay) : of this verb we find in Poets on]y the imperf (in 
the sense of the aor.) dTri]vpu)v, and aor. 1. med. dTTTjvpdjxrjv (from 
AYPQ). To these tenses must be added the part. aor. I. act. dirovpaq, 
and med. {with pass, signif.) aTrovpdp.EvoQ, with a particular change of 
vowel. These forms are strictly related to the former in point of 
meaning. 
2.) tTravpitJKOfiai, {I reap the fniits of, enjoy,) fut. eTravprjao/jLat, aor. kTrrjv- 
p6p,r]v, eTTavpscrOai, and in un- Attic writers, iiravpaaQai. — (See § 96, 8.) 
The old Poets have also the act., and chiefly the aor. kitavpov, Piud. Pyth. 
3,65, conj.hiravpio, infin.kiravpHV or tTravpljUEi/. The pres. iTtavpkiu, 
which is made from it, is in Hesiod. 

a(pva(jii), [I draw from, as water from a river,) fut. ck^vKm, aor, 

i](pv(Ta, a(pv(jai, {a^vaaai,) § 92. Obs. 2. 
A$ — see ed(p6r], and d7ra<pL(TK(t). 

axOonxai, [I am angry,) axOiaofiai, 7]xQiadr]v (§ 112, 3). 

AXQ, see d/caxi^w. 

aw, this theme occui-s with four different signif. 

1.) to blow, hnperf dov, (Apoll.) commonly drifxi (see above). 

^ "Apript, transltite, Od. e. 248, is incoi'rect instead of dpacatv. 
1" In Apollonlus, where the reading dptjpdixevog is incorrect. Compare 
dKr)\ip,ai and opwpsrai. 

11 Compare 11. I. 446, with a. 121, and %. 160, with t. 124. 

12 See about both, Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 22. 



252 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

2.) to sleep, aor. daa, and (§ 112. Obs. 3.) dscra, Horn. 

3.) to satiate, fut. acrw, aor. aaa, whence in the pres. pass, arai, and 
lengthened darai, (Hesiod. A. 101, as i\fut. according to § 95. Obs. 12.) 
ivfiii. act. dfitvai, (Horn.) contr. from dsjierai. Verbal adjective droQ : 
hence with the priv. a, daroQ, (Hesiod,) utoq, (Horn.) insatiable. 
Compare above 'AA — and the Note to ddio. 

4.) to hurt, in which sense it is stated above as a contr. of ddit). 
dojpTO, see aipw. 

B. 
(5aLvu), (/ go,) fut. Priaojiiaiy perf. jSfjSij/ca, aor. 2. £j3r?v, after 
i:<yrr}v : thus, ajSrjjUEV, f^yivai, j3fj0t '^5 [5{]T(jj, /3an]v, j3w. — 
Some of its compounds have also a pass, voice; for in- 
stance, Trapajdaivii), (/ go beyond, transgress,) perf. pass, 
7rapa(5e(5aiuLai, aor. pass. nap^l^aOrjv. - Verbal adj. fdaTog. 

All these forms are derived from BAQ, and are conjugated like 'iarrjfjLi, 
excepting the pres. tense ; but Homer has even this with the redupl, part. 
Pi(5dg, and (SijSojv. — The plusq. tfStfSrjKeiv has in Epic poetry the signif. of 
the imperf. or aor., ex. gr. II. ^. 495, 513. Compare jSdWoj tjSejSXrjKSiv. 
See about (Skcj, (3eiu), fSriy, the similar conj. of 'iartjv, § 107- Obs. IV. The 
shortened forms of the perf. (ex. gr. (3tj5dai, (3sj3dvai, (SslSujg, § 110, 10.) 
occur seldom except in the Poets and Dialects. — Homer has the aor. 2. 
shortened (SdTTjv for k(3f]Tr]v, vjrsp^acrav for vTrepkjSrjcrav. — The Epics too 
have an aor. med. (as act.) but wavering in the form, i^rioaro, or, according 
to § 96. Obs. 9, llBrjaero. Imper. (Brjafo. — See below (3sonai. 

This verb has likewise the causative signif. (§ 113, 2.) to cause to go, but 
only in the Ionic dialect and in Poets. The fut. act. jSijcrw, and the aor. 1. 
'i[Sr](ya, have only this signif. 

f^aXXd), {I throw,) fut. /3aXw, sometimes also j3a\\r}(T(jj, (§ 112, 
8.) aor. £j3aXov, perf. (5ej5\r]Ka, pass. /BtjSXrj^at, {conj., see 
§ 98. Obs. 9.) aor. I. pass. ejSAt]^^!..— MED. 

There are a few Epic forms derived from a syncopated aor. {'i(3Xr]V, see 
§ 110, 6, 7-) «or. ^vn(5XrjTT]v, (3 dual,) pass. 'e(i\r]T0, (SXrjaOai, opt. (SXtijjirjv, 
(3Xeio, &c. conj. (SXfjsrai, {iov j3XT]r}Tai,) and from this again a /m^. crv/i - 
l3Xrj(T0fiai. — The Epics also make the perf. pass. jStjSoXrfnai'^* (as if from 
BOAEQ). — The plusq. k(Bt(3Xi]icfiv has with Epic Poets the signif. of the aor. 
{hit,) ex. gr. II. e. fiG, 73. compare (iaivoj l(5e(5rjKeLP. 

Papvvii), (I load,) perf. pass, (from jSa^lw) j^ej^dpriiuLai, Plat. 

Hom. has part. peif. act. (3i(3apr}6Ta, otsq, with intrans. signif. (§ 97. Obs. 1.) 

/3acrraZ^w, {I carry,) fut. (daaTciffa), See. takes the other formation 
in the pass., ex. gr. £(5aGTdx0rjv (§92. Obs. 1). 

BA — (3i(Sriixi, see (Saivu). 

(^sofiai or (Stiojjiai, a Homeric fut, I shall live, which may be considered either as a 

" It may be shortened, when contracted ; for instance, /cara/3a as in i(rr»;jui. 

^* The old radical theme of this verb had an f (compare rs/xvw Tafivcj, rpsTTW 
rpaTTw, and below (TKsXXw). This is evident from the derivative /SgXoc:, and espe- 
cially from the verbal (StXkrrjg in eKaTrjjStXkrrjQ, whence BOAEQ, (see § 112, 9.) 
and likewise through the metathesis BEA, BAE, the forms Qk^XriKa, QXtiuriv, &c. 
(§110,11.) 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 253 

real irregular fut. (like ■n-'ioixai, or like ksm, Keiu),) or as a conj. used like Sifut. 
instead of ftewfiai (see § 139. Obs. 1. I. 4). Neither do we attempt to decide 
whether it belongs to an old verb BEIQ, (whence, perhaps, (Siog, jSiow,) or 
whether the pass, form of the verb jSatVw took the collateral meaning of tcan- 
dering through life, that is to say, living, in which case (Seioixai would corre- 
spond to the act. from j3eioj, conj. for j8w. 

Pij5pu)(jK(i}, [I eat,) from BPOQ, fut. {j3p(L(TOjuiai,) per/. /3fj3pwfca, 
&c. 

The part. perf. (SelBpojKMQ sometimes undergoes a contraction hke that of 
§ 110, 10, whence Soph. Antig. 1010. (SsfSpCJTsg. See about the Epic aor. 
i(3p(jjv, § 110, 6. The Homeric (3s(3()d)9oig belongs to a particular verb, the 
intensive pe(3pu)9oj, I devour. 

(5i6(i), (/ live,) fut, (diwcroiJiai, aor. l(^LW(Ta, and {aor. 2.) ipiajv, 
I^LtJvaiypart. f3iovg, conj. jdiw, wc, &c. opt. [5iojr]v (§ 110,6). 

The forms ISLwcTKOfxai and dvaj3i(o<JK0{xai have both the intrans. signif. (to 
start into life, revive, Plato Phced. 72.) and the transitive one (to restore to life, 
Crit. 9). It is merely in the latter sense that it has the aor. 1. k(3i(t)(Tafjt.riv 
{Od. 6. 468. Plato Phced. 89) ; in the former the act. dvaj3iwvai is used. 
BA, see /3d\\w. 

pXaardvw, (I sprout out, bud,) (dXaoTijcrw, f/BXaorov (§ 112_, 13). 
(5\u)(TK0), (/ go,) has, as if from MOAQ, aor. ifioXov, jjloKuv, 
fxoXcov, fut. fioXovjULai, perf. juifij^XwKa, (according to § 19. 
Obs. 1. for imifiXwKa,) as if it were MAOO, whence came 
the pres. tense jSAojo-kw. See § 110, 11. The pres. juoXtw 
is suspicious. 

(3od(t), (7 cry or call out,) always contracts orj into w ^^ in the Ionic dialect, fut. 

fSijJcroiiai, it then draws the accent back, aor. ejSojcra, and takes o- in the aor. 

pass. e(BMaOr]v. 
BOA, see (3d\Xio and jSoiiXofxai. 

(56(TK(.o, [Head to pasture,) fut. /3o(7fc//o-Wj &c. (§ 112, 8.) — MED. 

jdovXojULai, (/ will,) fut. ftovX{]GOfxai, perf [5e(5ovXr}/jLai, aor. £j3oti- 

XrjOrjv, r}f3ovXy]6r}v. (See about the augment, § 83. Obs. 5.) 

Homer has also a perf. 2. j3s[3ov\a {'Ttpo^k^ovKa, I prefer). The first 
syllable Avas likewise short in Homer, and the old language in general, in 
which case it is written with an o, (SoXaaOe (§ 5. Obs. 3). 
BO, see /3oaw. | BPO, see /SijSpwcrKw. 

^gaxiiv, l^paxov, an Epic aor., to make a noise ; different from (3psxsLv, to tcet, 

/3p£X6cr0ai, [SpsxQrjvai, and (Spaxrjvai, to be wet. 
(3pvxcio[jLai, I roar, bellow, dep. pass. The perf. act. has with Poets the signif. of 
the ^res. Compare /wT^/cdo/xai and fxvKaofiai. — See about the perf. (Bs[3pvxa, 
Buttm. Lexllogus, II. 85. 

r. 

jaixib), [I marry,) from TAMQ, fut. again yafxiw, ya/uu), aor. 

^= This becomes evident on comparing the verb (SwQtiv for (SorjOiip, to aid. 
Compare below voeoj. ' 



254 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

iynfJLaj ynixai, &c. perf, y^yajuriKa, &c. — MED, I marry, 
take a husband. The form lyafxi]9riv (whence Theocr. has 
ya/jieOtLaa) is a pure pass, 

TA, see TENQ. 

ysywva, a peif. with the signif. of the pres., I call aloud, proclaim. But most of the 
other forms are marie as of a pres. in co or soj derived from this perf. ; infin. 
yiyioveiv, imperf. lyeyojvsvv, (for -£ov,) 3 pers. sysyiovei, but also {kysyu)ve) 
ygywve, which form consequently occurs as^r^s., imperf., a.nd aor. See § 11 1, 2, 
TEN. This root, which corresponds to the Latin verb ^i^wo, ^^wwi, has two prin- 
cipal signif. ; the causative, to beget, and the immediative or intrans., to he horn. 
The forms are anomalously intermixed. Of the act. one there is none in use 
but the perf . {y'syova) : all the rest in both signif. belongs to the medio-passive 
form. The whole may, according to custom, be assigned to two different pres. 
tenses : 

1.) ye'ivoixai has merely the meaning of being born ; in the pres. it is poetical, 

to he begotten, and to beget; in the aor. i:ysivd[xr)v merely transitive, to 

beget, in both prose and poetry. Else the regular verb yevvdio is used 

in this last signif. 

2.) yiyvofxai, (old and Attic, later yivoixai,) fut. yevfjcrofiai, aor. eyevoixrjv, 

perf. yiysvT][xai, or (in act. form) ysyova : un-Attic forms, eyevrfOrjv, 

ysvrjOrjffoixai. All these forms are absolutely intransitive not only in 

the proper signif. of being horn, but also and even more frequently in 

the sense of becoming, growing, the Lat. fieri. To this must be added 

the signif. to be, since eysvofxrjv and ykyova serve at the same time as 

prceterites of the verb slvai. But whenever ysyova can be translated 

by the pres. tense, / am, it always conveys this particular meaning, / 

am by birth, or have become. 

There is for ysyova a poetical form, (ysyaa,) pi. ysyafiev, ysydacnv, infin, 

ysydfJisv, (for -dvai,) part. ytyao)Q, Attic ysycjQ (see § 110, 10). It appears 

to come from TAQ, from which is also derived the older form yeyaKSiv, 

(for yeyriKsvai, see § 111, 2.) in Find. ^^ — sytvro, ysvro, (Hesiod, Find.) 

is the syncopated aor. for sysvero : see also the following article. 

y'svTO, {he took, seized,) an old verb in Homer, of which no other tense occurs. In 

other poets it also stands for sy'svtTO, tytvTo, from the preceding verb. 

jYjOiu), (/ am glad,) yr^Orjaw, &c. ; perf, yiy-qQa is the same with 
the pres, and more used. 

yrjpdb} OY yr]pd<XK(jt), {I grow old,) fut. yrjpdaoiiai, is regular after the first form, yet 
the Attics prefer the foi'm yrjpdvai to the infin. aor. yr]pdaai. 

This yrjpdi^ai is the infin. of the more ancient aor. syrjpdi/, (see Buttm. 
Complete Gr. Gr.) to which belongs also the poetical parif. ynpag, {Tl. p. 197. 
yr}pdvTS(y<nv, Hesiod. E. 188.) to which the aor. 'idpdv, from hSpdaKu), 
exactly corresponds. See § 110, 6. 
yiyvofxai, yivonai, see FEN. 

yiyvojcTKit), (old and Attic, commonly yivtJGKw, I know, Lat. 
nosco,) from FNOli, fut, yvMcrofxai, aor, tyvwvypl. iyvu)fiev, 

i" The anomalous form ysyddrs, {Batrach. 143. Hom. Epigr. ult.) may be ex- 
plained from the j)erf y'syaa, {-dart for are,) having become the pres. tense, (see, 
however, Buttm. Lexilogus, I. Note to Art. 2, 1.) whence also sKysydovTai, Hymn. 
Ven. 198 ; the latter through a new anomaly as st,fut. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 255 

&c. infin. yv(^vai, imper, yvCoQi, yvu)r(x>, &c. opt. yvoirjv, 
part, yvovg, (§ 110, 6.) perf. tyvwKa, pass. iyvwa^iaL. 

In the causative signif. (§ 113, 2.) to persuade, which the compound ava- 
yiyv(o(XK(t) has, pai'ticularly with the lonians, it forms the aor. 1. dv&yvojaa. 
yodo), (/ bewail,) aor. 2. eyoov, II. ?. 500. (§ 96. 06s. 5.) 
yprjyopsu), see kydpu). 
rQN, see ysyu)va. 

A. 

AA, — daioj. The forms belonging to these themes have four 
principal signif. : to divide, give to eat, burn, teach. 

1. 5a'uo, (/ divide, particularly with a sharp instrument, / distribute,) in this 

form and signif. has merely the jip?'€s. and imper/., and is only poetical ; 
but the fut. Sd(TOfjiai, aor. kdaadfiijv, as depon. med., have the same 
meaning, and are also employed in prose ; the per/. d'sSa(7fjiai has the 
pass, tense, (/ am divided, distributed,) and its third pers. pi. dtSaiarai 
adheres again to the root daicj for the sake of euphony. Compare 
fiaiofxai kfiacrdnrjv, vaiu) kvacrdjxriv. The pres. dareoixai (which see 
below) bears the same relation to these forms as Trarlojuai to TrdaaaOai. 

2. daivvfii, {I give to eat, treat, feast,) med. daiwixai, {I consume, revel,) 2 pers. 

daivvo, (see § 107. Obs. 4, 4.) according to the analogy of verbs in 
vvfxi, makes its tenses from Saioj, which, however, never has this signif. 
in the pres. tense, dalcroj, daiaofiai, &c. 

3. daiuj in the pres. tense signifies also to burn,hlndle ^''. In i\\Qperf. dsdrjUj 

(§ 97j 4.) it has the intrans. sense of the med. daio[jiai, (Z burn, am on 
fire,) aor. 2. {eda6[xt]v,) 3 conj. Sdrjrai. 

4. AAQ combines the causative sense to teach with the hnmediative one to 

learn. In the first we have only the aor. 2. tdaov or dedaov, (§ 83. 
Obs. 7.) to which belongs also the Homeric dsdae, but in the sense of 
learning, perf. {Skdaa,) deddaai, dtda<i)Q, aor. pass. Iddrjv, (properly teas 
taught, i.e. learned,) whence the new perf. Siddijica, (§ 111, 3.) or 
deddrjuai, fut. darjaofiat : dsdaa as a pres. tense gives (dtSdaOai) Sidd- 
aaOai, to get to hioic, to investigate, experience, Homer. This vei-b is 
merely poetical, and has no pres. tense in either sense, but the usual 
IddcKio (below) comes from it. 
The Epic Stuj), dijeig, &c. an anomalous fut. with the steady meaning I 
shall find, also belongs to this root^^. 

dcLKvu), {I bite,) from AHKO, fut. di)^ofxaL, perf. ^idrixu} aor. 
'eSaKOv, § 112, 12. 

Saixdoj, see dsfxuj. 

^apOavw, {I sleep,) fut. dap6{]<joiuLm, perf dsddpOmc^, aor. edapOov, 

§ 112, 13. 

Poets use edpaOov for tdapOov, (§ 96. 06s. 7-) and the compound with 
Kara sometimes takes in the aor. the form of the aor. pass. KareddpOrji/, 

'7 It is from misunderstanding the passage II. e. 4, 7> that the intrans. signif. is 
given to this form. Compare II. a. 206, 227. 

1^ Compare Ki'na in KUfiai. Both are old fut. from AAQ, KEQ, in the form of 
the fut. 2. instead of da'sw, Kt'su), with the contr. of the first two vowels, as in the 
gen. K\eiog, (from KXteog,) for kKsovq. See § 53. 06s. 5. 



256 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

KaTaSapOeiQ) (fallen asleep,) which form may be considered as aor. 1. for 
i^dpa9r)v, (compare KiKcipQai for -adai, and iripQai in 7r£p0w,) or as a 
solitary instance of an aor. 2. pass, with Q. (see § 100. 06s. 9.) 

darkofiai, (see daiu) 1.) aor. 1. injiii. duTkaaOai, Hesiod. E. 795. See § 96. 06s. I. 

AAQ, see daioj. 

dkarai, see doarai. \ del, see dsto. | deiScj, see dii<Tai. 

deUvv^i, {I show,) fuL Ed^w (§ 107, and 112, 14).— MED. 

The lonians make the fut. di^oj, iStE,a, dsdeynai {aTrodtSixOai, see § 27. 
06s. 3). 

The vied. ds'iKvvnai has in the Epics {11. i. 196. Hymn. Apoll. 11.) the 

sense of greeting, tcelcoming, pledging to drink, and therefore the perf. also 

belongs hither Avith a similar signif. to that of the pres. Seideyfjiai, (for 

dkdeiynai,) 3 ^7?. SeiSsxarai, 3 sing, plusq. as imperf. SeideKTO : SeiKavdofiai, 

deidi<TKoixai, and dtdicricofxaL ^^, are collateral forms, which all have the same 

signif. 

Sticrai, to fear, edei(ya,fiit. ddaofiai. The perf. dsdoiKa, (§ 97. 06s. 1.) and dsdia (t), 

have the power of the pu'es. (I fear) ; their alternate use was regulated by 

euphony. Syncopated forms are made from ^kSia : dsdifiev, dkdiTS, 3 pi. plusq. 

tdkCKTav, and an imper. dsSiOL (§ 110, 10). 

The Epics also used deidoiKa, deicia, (compare the preceding ^£i^£icro,) 
and deidifxiv, &c., and still more shortened (in Apoll.) p)art. dsidvla. Hence 
came a new p)'es. Selda), which occurs only in these poets, but from which all 
the above tenses were formerly derived. 

We find the aor. always written i55si(Ta in Homer ; this is the only 
instance of a muta 'O doubled in the augment. 

The Epic 6iu) includes also the idea of flying from, escaping, {II. x- 251.) 
of which the causative is to frighten (§ 113, 2). But it is very singular that 
Homer renders this exclusively by the pass, voice {SisaOai, conj. SiiDfxai, &.C.). 
The act. of another form ^t»?/xi, on the contrary, signifies to hunt, chase, 
{ev8U<Tav, II. a. 584.) and the pass, is to fly from, run {dievTui, II. ;//. 475). 
The infin. diecjOai may belong to both forms, and has both meanings {II. [i. 
276, 304). 
AEK, see deiKwui and dsxoixai. 

Ssfiii), {I build,) aor. t^ajua, perf. HdfirjKa, &c. (§ 110, 4 and 11.) The form du- 
ixofiev in Homer is the shortened conj. aor. See 06s. V". 15, § 103. — MED. 

The same theme gives hkewise the tenses to dafjiduj, {I tame, subdue,) perf. 
Ssdfir]Ka, aor. piass. lcdixr}v, ldixf]9r]v, — dafi^ and ^a^dq. are both pres. and 
fut. In prose we find in this sense ^a/xa'^w, which is regular. 
dkpKOfiai or SsdopKU, {I see, behold,) aor. 'idpuKov, (see § 96. 06s. 7-) also IdpaKijv 
and iSkpx^n'^} all act. 

EexojuLai, {I take,) is in Ionic EeKOiuai, and hither belongs also, 

^^ Several grammarians place the form deideKTO under c'sxop.ai, because they 
fancy that the signif. to receive, welcome, is more readily derived from it. But the 
fundamental meaning unquestionably is to reach the hand, and ^tiicw probably signi- 
fied in the origin simply / stretch out the hand, from which SsKOfiat, dsxojxai, is very 
naturally derived. Compare CfidoLica, Ssidia, which also have the redupl. 6ei, 
because the radical syllable is likewise dsi. 

20 That the true cause of the lengthened syllable, which occasions this I'eading 
here and in viroh^tiaaaa, dSSteg, is to be sought for in a hitherto undiscovered 
digamma after the d, (d\v,) has been shown by Dawes, Misc. 168. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 257 

according to § 112, 9. the Epic SbcoKr)iuivog {waiting, being 
on the watch, II. o. 730) : ^eSey/uLivot: is used in the same 
sense, (11. S. 107. &c.) also 3 pi. dixarai and plusq. as 
imperf. sSejiuirjv. Yet likewise b^ekto, dixOai, as syncopated 
aor. in the sense of taking. — See ^dS^yfxai in ^dKvvfxi. 

Siw, {I tie, bind,) see § 105. Obs. 2. and § 95. Obs. 4.— The fut. 3. 
S£Br]GOjuai, (§ 99. Obs. 1.) supplies the un- Attic fut. 1. deOrt- 
aofiai. — MED. 

did), (/ ivant, lack,) fut. ^sijaio, &c. is commonly impersonal: 
dai, {it behoves, is necessary, French il faut,) conj. ^iy, opt. 
^ioi, infin. ^elv, part, ^iov, fut. dericrei, &c. The pass. Siojuiai, 
Siij or ^hi, durai, &c. is always personal, {I want, need,) 

The contr. ei was sometimes resolved in this verb, even by the Attics, to 
distinguish it from the preceding terb ; as Isocr. Busir. 2. roaovrov dkig, &nd 
in Xenophon fx*equently Sserai, detaOai. But Homer has the aor. Srjcrtv, {II. 
(T. 100.) and a peculiar form SevoixaL, Ssvrjaofiai. 
8saTai,see doarai. \ ARK, see datcvcx). \ dr](t}, see AA. 

^i^ddKtj, {I teach,) loses the o- in the formation : ^fSa£w, ^EdiSaxa, 
&c. ; with Poets also ^L^acrKrjaio. — MED. 

Comes from AAO. Compare the Note to aXv(TK(jj. 

^idpacTKoj, {I run away,) occurs only in compounds, (aVoStSpao-Kw, 
^mSfSpaa-Kw,) from APA12,/w/. Spao-o/xai, perf. ^i^puKa — aor, 
eBpav, ag, a, afi&v, 'idpare, S pi. eSpd(7av and tdpav, (§ 107. 
Obs. IV. 6.) conj. ^pCo, ag, a, &c. opt. EpaLr}v, imper. dpaOi, 
infin. Spavai,part. ^pag. See § 110, 6. with the Note. 

The lonians have everywhere t], didprjaKu), dprjffOfJLai, 'idpijv, &c. This 
terb must not be confounded with the regular c^pdw, (/ do,) which has fut. 
act. dpd(Tb}, and aor. 1. edpatra : dsSpaKa is common to both. 

^iZrifxai, {I seek, inquire,) is a form of jjli, which retains the rj in 

the pass., § 106. Obs. S.fut. ^iZ,{](joiiaL Hom. 
^KHv, {to throw,) eSijcov, is a defective aor. 

diypyv, see § 105. Obs. 5. ] d'lix), see du<xai. | AME, see dsfio). 

^oarai or ^iarai, {it appears,) aor. ^oacraaro, conj. EocKraerai {-riTai), 

Homer. 
doKib), {I seem, think,) from AOKO, fut. SoSw, &c. The perf. 

from the pass, ^idoyfiai {I have seemed). The regular 

formation Sokww, &c. is poetical. 

See the Epic SeSoKr]nsvoQ in Sexofiai. 

dovTrkb), {to give a hollow sound, make a noise in falling,) perf SiSovrra, (§ 97. Obs, 4.) 
aor. k^ov-Ktiaa and eySov7n](Ta from a form rAOYII, which bears the same 
relation to ^outtIw, as KTVTrkw to tvtttw. 

S 



258 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

^pajxeXv, dtdpona, see rpsxio. \ APA, see SidpdaKu). 

Svvajuat, (/ can, am able, have power,) pres. and imperf. like 
'laTajum, 2 pe7'S. pres. ^vvaaai. Poetically Suvr?. See about 
the conj, and opt. § 107. Obs. III. 5. and §83. Obs.5. 
about the augment. Fut. dwrjcrofxai, aor. r}^vvriOr]v, (also 
IdvvadOrjv,) perf. Se^vvmaai. 

Verbal adjective, Swarog, possible. 

In Honiei' this verb is a depon. med. dvvrjaaTo for eSvvrjBr]. 

Suw. This verb originally combined the immediative signif. to go 
in, enter, with the causative one, to wrap up in, inclose 
(§ 113, 3). 

The pres. act. dvoj has only the latter, {to wrap in, si7i]c,) and retains it in the 
fut. and aor. 1. act. Svcru), 'idvaa, pass. advOrjv, (§ 95. Obs. 4.) The MED. 
Suofxai, {I wrap myself up in,) dvaofxai, k^vaaiiriv, took the intrans. (imme- 
diative) signif. (to go in, dive, Sec), which again assumes a transitive signif., to 
enter (a garment), put on (a coat, i. e. to dress). These signif. of the immediative 
sense are retained in the act., in the perf. dkdvKa, and the aor. 2. (see § 110. 
6.) tdvv, dvvai, dvg, imper. dvOi., dvTS, conj. Svu), (II. p. 186. Plato Crat. 413.) 
opt. ^W7?v.2i To this must be added a new act. form in the ^r^s. tense Ivvio, 
which along with the aor. idw is preferred in certain connexions and in the 
compounds, to the form dvofxai, idvcrdfxrjv. 

This is the basis of the general practice ; the modifications arising from 
the different shades of meaning, especially in the compounds, must be left to 
dictionaries and individual study. The aor. med. sSvaafiijv has with Epics a 
collateral form, Idvaero, Idvffso, imper. Svaso, see § 96. Obs. 9. Hither 
belongs also the part. dv(j6fisvoQ with the signif. of the pres. in Od. a. 24. 
Hesiod, E. 382. Herod, makes of dvvco, dvvsovcri (§ 112. Obs. 5). 

E. 

td(p9r], a Homeric form, either from utttuv, (to bind,) compare idyrjv, saXcov, or from 
eVojuat, (see below,) for ti<p6t}, commonly saTrero. See Buttm. Lexilogus, II. 87. 

tye/pw, (/ awaken, or rouse from sleep,) is regular in the act. 
perf. ly{]yepKai EyrfjEpfiai. 

The med. has the signif. of awaking from sleep, being wakeful, watching, 
and its aor. is riyp6iir}v, (§ 110, 4.22) The joer/". 2. sypriyopa (of which the 
anomalous redupil. was probably caused by r/ypofirjv) has also the immediate 
signif. like other perf. 2. (see § 113. Obs. 3.) but acquii-es a new jor^s. signif., 
i. e. becomes a new pres. tense; properly, / have been awakened, i. e. am 
awake, watch ; the plusq. with the force of an imperf. eypr]y6pHv. Pres. tenses 
derived from lyprjyopa in the same sense are, eyprjyopou) in Homer ; 
lypriyopku) in the later prose ; and ypriyopkio in the New Testament. From 

^^ Compai'e § 107- 06s. III. 6. Hence exdvixev for eKdvrjixtv (like Oeifxsv for 
Odnp-iv). See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 17- 10. 

22 See about the infin. 'iyptaOai, (instead of eypea^ai,) Buttm. Complete Gr, Gr. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 259 

syprjyopars arises the Homeric form lYprjyopOs. (§ 110. Obs. 5.) and from 
this again with new anomahes the 3 peis. pi. typrjyopOaffi. 
tSu), see iaOiio, \ k^ovfiai, see s'CofxaL. 

'iZoinaL, KaOeZojULai, {I sit down,) fid. KaOadovimai, (§ 95. Obs. 16.) 
imperf. eKa6EZ6jui]v, used as ao7\ 

See, for instance, Plato Menon 26. p. 89. Xen. Anab. 5, 8. 14. This ren- 
ders the pres. KaOs(^o[j.ai suspicious even in later writers. Compare below, 
V^oj, and above, § 108. II. dda and rifiaL, which forms pi'operly all belong to 
one root. See in Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr., in the List of Verbs, t^a». Later 
writers also used the ^jass, form sKaOeaOtjv instead of kKaOe^^ofirjv. 

lOiXu) and OiXii), [I ivill, ivish,) fut. We\i]<Tiv, OeXi^crw, &c. (§ 112^ 

8.) peif. i)9iXr]Ka. 
W(j), (/ a7n ivont,) perf. aiwOa, (§ 97. Obs. 2.) Ion. ewOa, is alone 

used instead of this pres. tense. 

There is nothing left of the pres. but the Homeric part. Wojv, accustomed. 
tW(x), (/ see,) an old verb, of which there remains nothing in this tense but tldov, 
ideiv, iSkaOai, Sec. as aor. of the verb opdw (which see). But in the Epics there 
is also e'idio in the same sense, (which as j:>re?s. of the indie, occurs only in later 
Poets,) the pass, form tidofxai, eladnijv, (iu(jd}jir]v, hiadixevog,) for to be seen, 
and to seem, Lat. videri. See about the signif. of this verb, § 113. Obs. 10. 
and about the special forms used in the sense of knowing, {olda, ydeiv, sicrojttai, 
&c.) § 109. III. 

siKU), perf. toLKa, [I resemble, appear,) used as a pres. part. loiKihg, 
Attic uKihg, especially in the neuter elkoq, see § 109. III. 
5. Note {Ion. oTk-a, oIkujq, oIkoq,) plusq. ewkelv, (§ S4i. Obs. 9.) 
fut. a|w. (The verb I give ivay is altogether regular.) 
Like uKujg, eiKa and elicivai occur now and then in Attic 
Poets for the sake of the metre. 

The^r^s. e'lKio occurs nowhere, and the imperf. elics (for i(iJKei) merely II. 
<T. 520. The Epic forms tiiCTov, liicTrjv, and ri'iKTo, t'lK-o, have been more 
properly ranked (in the Note just mentioned, and § 110, 9.) along with the 
Attic ioiy/jisv, (Soph. Eurip.) among the syncopated forms of the perf. and 
plusq. See the same Note about the remarkable form t'i^aai instead of loiKacn, 
which occurs in the Attic prose writers. 

£i\w, (/ crowd, press together,) more commonly elXid) or EtXiu), 
fut. {](T(i), &c. aor. 1. infin. eXcrai, ssXa-at, pai't. sXcrac, peif. 
pass. ieXfiai, aor. pass. EaXr]v, infin. dXrivaL or aXi]f.LEvaL, part. 
oXAq (which forms are also fluctuating in our editions 
between the spiritus asper and the spiritus lenis). 

Compare atJTdXrjv, crTaXrjvai, from oteXXoi: from the same root EAAQ, in 
the sense oi pushing, pressing, comes also eXavvu>, (see below,) in the particular 
signif. of which to beat, strike, the aor. iXcrai (ex. gr. Od. £. 132.) occurs in 
Homer. Hither belongs also, according to § 112, 9. the j^^^'^Q- ^oXriro, icas 
crowded, pressed, Apoll. 3, 471. See Buttm. Lexilogus, II. 88. and 7t>, 7- 
(ifiapTai, see MEIPOMAI. | eifxl and eJfii, see § 108. IV. V. 

S2 



260 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

eiTTHv, {to say,) an aor. 2. indie, nirovy {Epic hnrovy) imper. unl, 
(comp. 7rpo£t7r£, see Obs. I. 4. 1. to § 103.) more usual than 
the rather Ionic aor, 1. uira, (§ 96. Obs. 1.) imper. Iwov, 
(erroneously httov, see Exc. I. ad Plat. Menon), The 
Attics^ however, use uirag as well as Hireq, and preferably 
UTjaTE, dirdrto, &c.^^ 

With this aor. are intimately connected the fut. Ipw, {Ion. Ipeoj,) from t'ipio, 
which Poets use as the pres. tense — and of PEQ the pei-f. tlpijKa, (§ 83. 
Obs. 3.) pe)-f. pass. e"Lp7jfiai,aor. pass. IpprjQ rjv &nd eppeOrjv, (un-Attic dprjOrjv, 
(ipsQrjv,) pr]9)]vai, fut. 3. as usual /^t^. pass. eiprjGop.ai^'^. Verbal adjective^ 
prjTtog, prjTOQ. 

^rifxl is used as the pres. tense of this verb, (as we remarked above, § 109. 
I. 2.) on some occasions ayopevtiv, which properly signifies to speak in public^ 
for instance, /ca/cwg dyopeveiv Tivd, kokuiq ehroi' : — dyopiveiv is always used 
in most of the compounds, ex. gr. aTrayopevu), I forbid, dirtiTrov, I forbade ; 
in some \kyio, for instance, a^riXsyw, dvTtiTTov. 

The Poetical imper. lairtTe comes from a collateral form with an inter- 
calated a. Compare XdaKO), ItaKOJ, fxicyyo). 

The Poetical ivkiru} or kwirru) is also very anomalous ; it is identical with 
itiriiv, of which (r/j/jcTTrov) eviOTrov is to be considered as the aor., since we 
meet with no pres. indie. kvicTTru),^^ and the infin. is circumflexed, [evicr'Trtiv, 
Od. y. 93.) fut. Evi(T7rr](T(o or kvitpio. 26 

ei^yti), {I conclude, shut outj) fut. dp^w, &c. 

iLQjvvfxi, with the spiritus asper, I confine^ shut up, fut. up^to, &c. 

The ancient and Epic language has for both signif. tpyw, whence 3 pl.perf. 
kepxaTai, and without the augment, epxarai, they are shut up. 

Hpw, see ftTTtty and IpicrOai. But in the sense of connecting in 
order, it is a particular verb, aor. 1. upa, (Herod. 3, 87. 
l^dpag, exserens),perf hpfxm.part. kppivog, (Horn.) sppevog 
(Herod. 4, 190). 

^^ To assume the theme EIIQ, as is usually done, is needlessly adopting the ano- 
maly, which the augment si continues thi'ough all the moods. A theme EIIIQ agrees 
perfectly well with a radical form EII — (whence errog). 

2^ Grammarians increase the number of the themes of this verb, without any 
reason, by admitting kpsot, which absolutely is either the regular /wi. of dpu), or the 
pres. tense in the sense of asking, (see below.) It is assumed as a theme liere on 
account of t'IprjKa, and merely for this spso) is ranked among the verbs which take 
the temporal augment ti. But as PEQ unquestionably is one of the themes of this 
verb on account of lppr]Brjv, pfjfia, the analogy of tiXrjcpa, ufxaprai, (§ 83. Obs. 3.) is 
a most natural inducement to connect e'ipijKa with the same theme. 

2* II. X. 839. and elsewhere IviaTTO) is co}ij. aor. 

2° Just as diSdaKO) and dXixTKu) omit the (T in the fut., so does ivi(nrM. This fut. 
is, therefore, no ax'gument to class ivnTTio here, (though from its form it certainly 
might belong hither,) and as the ^p/rs. iviiTTtiv, and its kindred forms riviTTaTTiv and 
ivicrau), when they stand alone in Homer, never signify to say, but to scold, they 
must be I'emoved from the radical form f'nrtXv, and be stated separately below (see 
kviiVTU}): though there is alsoap-es. kv'nrTb) from evsTToj used at least in Pind. 
Pyth. 4, 358. where we have tviTTTwv for tvkirojv. See a moi'e detailed account of 
both verbs in Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 63. p. 279. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 261 

e'iwOa, see 10 a>. 

aXavvw, (J drive,) fut. eXaau), {a,) &c. perf. IXrjXaKa, pass. perf. 
lX7]Xaij.ai, aor. riXaQr\v. Verbal adjective iXaroq (with later 
writers iXiiXaafxai, y]XaGdr]v, cXaoro^). 

The theme tXaw seldom occurs in the pres. tense, but IXw, «Xag, i\^, &c. 
infin. k\q.v, is in pi'ose the Attic fut. (§ 95. 06s. 12.) See also iiKio, IXaai, 
and about i\r}\ddaTO, see p. 176. the Note, and about iXrjXaixevog, {^proparox. 
ex.gr. Av3.i. 176.) § 111. 06s. 2. 
EAEYG— , EAG, see fpxo/iai. 

cAkw, (/ drag,) augment ei, § 84, 2. fut, cX^o) and IXkiictu), aor. 
elX^a and stX/cvca, pass, merely ciXjcuo-juat, dXKVdOr^v, from 
EAKYQ.— MED. 

eXttw, {I give hopes, I cause to hope,) tXirofxai, (I expect, 1 hope,) 
perf. toXira the same with iXirofjiai, plusq. as imperf, IwXtthv 
(§ 84. 0^5. 6 and 9). 

'EA — , see elXo). 'EA — , see alpeu). 

ENErK — , ENEIK, &c. see ^spoj. \ svsttui, see s'nrelv. 

ivijvoda, an old perf. which presupposes a theme ENE9Q, EN9Q : sTrevrjvoOt, 

KUTevrjvoOe, (is, sits, lies on something,) Horn. See § 97. 06s. 2, and compare 

above di>r}vo9a. 
ei^Qtiv, i]i'9or, see Ep^Ojiai. 
iviTTTU), (I scold 27j) has two forms for the aor. in Homer, either Ivsvitttov, more 

correctly Iv'svLttov, (see Buttm. Lexilogus, 1. 63, p. 282, and compare above 

§ 85. 06s. 2.) or according to § 85. 06s. 3, with the rediipl. at the end (3 pers.) 

i^viTraTTSv. 
IviaTTfi), kvvsTTuj, see (iTrelv. | evvv/jn, see § 108. III. 

koXrjTO, see e'iXu). \ iiravpdv, k-navplaKonai, &c. see AYP. 

'En — , see siTreiv. 

ETTLCTTaiuLaif (/ know, understand,) 2 pers. iTriaraaai, poetically 
eTTLCTTa or liriaTtj, (see the Note to Soph. Philoct. 798.) 
imperf. ^Trio-ra^rjv, (so far it goes after iarafxai, conj. and 
opt. see § 107. Obs. III. 5.) fut. l-nrLGry^GOfiaL, aor. rjTnarijOrjv. 
Verbal adj. kirtaTrjTog. 

tTTO) (/ am busy, or occupied, about something, see Schneider^s 
Gr. Diet.) 

This old verb, of which some compounds (especially- dik-rrcj) have been 

retained in prose, has the augment u, {dulTTov,) and an aor. tairov, ciriiv, 

cTTrojv (sTTEcrTroi/, linaTrdv, [xsracTTrihv, but all rather poetical). To avoid 

mistakes, compare 'iaTitrt and Ivetto; in dirtiv. 

STToiiai, {I follow, attend,) inr6ixr]v, t\ponai. This middle voice, which is much 

used, has an aor. corresponding to that of the act. sttoj, excepting that it has 



27 See, about the difference of the forms IvIttw and the fut. evkxpuj, the preceding 

NoU. 



262 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

the sjnntusasper in the indie. : iaTr6f.ii]v, aTtkaBai, airov, {air'io, (jttiIo, Horn.) 
which Lattex' foiniis occur chiefly in the compounds, iTriaTrov, &c. 

The okl poets have the £ also in the other moods of the aor. scrTrwjuat, 
eaTTscrOai, kaTrofxevoQ'^^. But the pres. scTrtrat, Od. 6. 82G, is a false reading 
for £p;^frat : see especially id(pBi] above. 

£|Oati), (/ love,) poetically Ipafiai, (after '[(rrafim,) takes its tenses 
only from the pass, form, ao7\ i)pd(76r}v (poetically i)pa(Ta- 
ju>]v). The pres. tense epwfxai, epaaOai, £pw/ifvoc, is a real 
pass. 

Another I'egular Ipdu) is used merely in compounds, i^epdaai, fo pour out ; 
Ka-epdaai, Sec. 
EPFQ and ^pdio, see ps^w : — tpyw, see also in etpyw. 

EpELKU), to tear to pieces, in the transitive sense, but in the aor. 2. 
i]piKov it is intrans. (§ 113, 2.) 

ipuiTWi {I throw down, overthrow,) has this causative (§ 113, 2.) 
signif. in the fut., aor. 1. &c. ; epipnrro, plusq. pass. Epic, 
instead of Ipiipi-ro, § 85. Obs. 1. but the aor. 2. and perf.2. 
7]pi7rov, kpiipiTTa, have the immediative signif. to fall down — 
Epic med. avrjptiilap-nv, he carried off on high, carried away. 

spsio, see s'nreiv and epsaOai. 

epitiw, (/ strive, contend,) is regular, perf. pass. IpripLafiai with a 
strengthened signif. of the^?'e5. 

There is another form Ipicaivio, and (according to § 112, 13.) IpdriaaaQai, 
II. \b. 792, where the i is long for the sake of the metre. 

Ipiadai, [to ask,) inf. of i]p6p.r]v, c. tpwjjiai, imper. ipov, an aorist. 
Flit. kpi](JO}iaL. 

The lonians in their prose have also a pres. tense, eipofiai, but use the 
imperf. elpofirjv, with elpecrOai, thus accented, and this is likewise aor. in the 
other moods, fiit. alp{]<TOfiai. The Epics have also epsaOai as pres. tense with 
the signif. of t'ipoixai, and further the form tpeu) in both the act. and tned., 
which must be carefully distinguished from the fut. epku) (see eiTrtlv) : conj. 
kpeio[jLtv, Epic for epeojfjiev. Whatever is wanting is supplied in prose by 
epwrdu). 

eppti), [I go away,) Ippi^aii), ippr](ja, § 112, 2. 

The Homeric d~6ipai is derived from this verb in its causative sense, to 
sweep away. See Buttm. Lexil. II. 92. 
IpvOaivco, {I redden, make red,) fut. spvQqcru), &c. (§ 112, 13.) Homer has also the 

radical form IpsvOco, kptvab), &c. 
tpvKw, {I restrain, keep off,) aor. rjpvKaKOV, infin. kpvKaicUiv, see § 85. Obs. 3, 
cpiiw, or iipvu), V, {I draw, drag, pull,) is regular through the whole conjugation, 

2^ On comparing the forms ta—ov, c—kaQai, and icrxov, o'xfti-', (from Ix^i) with 
t7r\i, tTtXtro, k-TTTOfxi]!', TrrscOat, &c. (see § 110, 4.) it becomes obvious that the for- 
mer have been produced by the same svncope. The sjAiitus asper in s— w and EXQ 
(Hdj) was changed into an a, which immediately took its station before the follow- 
ing consonant, thus — e-axov, t-cnrov. The aspirated £ in ecFTrofxrjv is an anomaly. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 263 

fut. again epvio, med. spvo[jiai, II. X. 454. See § 95. Ohs. 12. Hesiod (E. 816.) 
has also the infin. elpviJievai of a form in jut (short). The MED. ipvonat takes 
in Epics the sigiiif. to save, preserve ; in this sense some editors write the v 
with one o-, {ugvaaro,) when the syllable ought to be long, just as if the v had 
been originally long ; and in the sense to draw, they spell it with a double a, 
(spvdcraro,) as if the v had been originally short. But as the v is also found 
short in the first sense, {ex. gr. II. d. 186. %. 351.) and as the signif. frequently 
run one into the other, it is more correct to denote the lengthening of the v 
by two (T, without any distinction. The collateral form pveoQai, which simply 
means to save, liberate, has, on the contrary, a long v in the Attics, sppixraro, 
but with the Epics this too is short, pvad^riv, II. o. 29, and should therefore 
also be lengthened ippvcjaaro, pvaaaro, which, however, is generally ne- 
glected. Lastly, there is a syncopated collateral form, (§ 110, 5.) 'ipvaOai, 
e'ipvaOai, and pvaQai, commonly with long v, epvro, (yet once ipvro in Hesiod, 
9. 304.) a'ipvTo, sipvarai, pvaro, &c. almost exclusively in the sense of saviiig, 
watching over, (except Od. %. 90. e'ipvTO, dragged, pulled,) which must not be 
mistaken for the j^pe?/. and plusq. of the radical form dpiifxai, I have been 
dragged. — See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 18, with the Additions in vol. ii. 

tpx^l^f^h (^ ffo,) from EAEYGQ, fut. IXixxjoixm, aor. riXvOov, 
commonly riXOov, (§ 110, 4.) eXOeiv, imper, iXOe, (see Obs. 
I. 4, 1, to § 103.) &c. perf, £Xi]Xv9a. Verbal adj. IXevariov, 

The pe7-f. with the Epics is eiXijXovOa — 1 pers. pi. with the syncope 
elXr]Xov6ixev. 

The Doric is ijvOov, IvOelv, see § 16. Obs. 1. d. 

It has already been stated above, § 108. V. that instead of the other 
moods of the pres. from tp^ofxai, which more seldom occur, especially in 
compounds, we meet much more frequently with those of dfii, and that in- 
stead of Yipxoiinv we more generally find the imperf. yuv or ya, and the 
pres. sifjii instead of the fut. iXivaonai. 

l<jQr]fxivoQ, [clothed,) Ion., ^aQ^fxivoQ Alt., a defective part. perf. 
laBiu), [I eat,) from i^io, (Hom.)>/. l^oixm, (§ 95. Obs. IS.) perf. 

kdiidoKa, perf. pass, ^^ij^eafxai, aor. pass. rjSiaOriv, — aor. act. 

ecpayov (from (PAFO). — Verbal adj. l^earog. 

Part of the forms of edio come fi'om the old formation, fut. iSsao), &c. 
(§ 112. Obs. 3.) where the e in the pe^f. act. was changed into o, (compare 
§ 97. 06s. 1, 2.) which in Homer remains also in the pass. kdridoijiaL, Idrj- 
dorai. Homer has also the perf. idrjda, and the infin. pres. 'iSfJievai, (§ 1 10, 5.) 
for ideiv, eCsfxtvaL. Poets have a shorter form in the pres. £cr0a>. 

iarrere, 'idTtov, icTTronrjv, see tiirelv and sttw. 

evade, see avddvoj. 

£vd(i), KaSsvdd), {I sleep,) fut. tuSr^orw, Ka9£V^r}(j(i), augm. KaOr^vBov, 
KadavBov, and eKaOevdov. 

cvpio-Kcu, (/ fi7id^) from 'EYP12, aor. £tIpov, imperf. evp£, fut. 
avp{](TiD, &c. (§ 112, 10.) aor. pass. evpWijv, (§ 95. Obs. 4.) 
Verbal adj. EvpeTog.—Augm. § 84. Obs. 2.— MED. 

Uu- Attic writers form the aor. med. like the aor. 1. evpdfir]v, instead of 
tvp6iJ,r]v (§ 96. Note to Obs. 1). 



264 A GREEK GRAMlMAR. 

txO(i), {T hate,) only in the pres, tense, and poetical, whence a 
MED. [Ix^avofiaij) cnrex^dvoiLiaL, (/ incur hatred,) fut, 
aTTfx^'Vo/xaf, &c. aor. 7]\06iir]v, a'Trr]xd6fXYiv ^^, perf, cnr- 
i)xd}]fiaL, I am hated. See § 112, 13. 

tX'^} [I have,) imperf, flx^^? A^* ^'5^^' (with the spiritus asper, 
see § 18. Obs. 4.) — aor. (as if it were from EXO,) i(Jxov, 
(Tx^^v, conj. (TX^s ^XV^y ^^' (compounds i7apacr;(w, irapaaxyQ} 
opt. axoLr]v, (see the Note to Obs. II. 3. to § 103.) imper. 
(Tx^Q} (§ ^^^} 6*) but in the compounds also irdpadx'^i med. 
laxofinvi imper. crxow, [nagdaxov^) — whence a new fut. 
axri<y(j>J, perf. Eo-^rj/ca, &c. — aor. pass. Icrx^Oriv. — Verbal adj. 
EKTog and ax^Tog. 

The aor. (rxtlv has produced a collateral foi'm of the pres. to-xtu, which is 
preferred in some particular signif. {to Jiold, occupy, &c.) to which of course 
the fut. (rx?7(Tw more properly belongs ^o. There is an old per/, of ix(o, 
6x(*iKa {II. (5. 218. cruyoxwKort^^). 
We must also notice the following anomalous compounds of fxw : 

dvsxo). This verb, when in the middle voice {avsxsaOai) it merely signi- 
fies to endure, bear, has the double augm. in the imperf. and aor. T^vsixof^rjv, 
riviaxofxriv (§ 86. Ohs. 6). 

a[X7rex(j^, {T wrap round, environ,) imperf. afnruxov, fut. dfKpsKbi, cior. 
riinnaxov, ajUTrtaxtir ^^, MED. dfiTrexofiai or diiinaxvovnai, {I clothe my- 
self in, wear,) d^cps^ofxai, aor. tJ/xttictxojuj/v. 

v-maxvovnai, {I promise,) Ion. viriaxoiiai, (Hom. Herod.) fut. viroaxn- 
aojxai, aor. vTreaxofirjv, imper. vrroaxov, perf. vTrtaxj^juat. 

txfjuj, {I boil, cook,) fut. k\pr)<Tto, &c. (Herod. 1, 48. has the imperf. 
£^££.) Verbal adj. i\pY]Teog, i\pr)Togi or E06g. 

Z. 

Zdw, {I live,) has (according to § 105. Obs. 5.) ^w, Zy^i Zy^ &c. 
imperf. eZoJv, tZrjg, &c. infin. Zyv — imper. Zn- 

We also meet (as if from a form in jui) with the 1 pers. imperf. 'iK^v, and 

2^ The infin., notwithstanding its aoristical signif., is always found accented, 
dTTsxOtcrOai, but there is no pres. tense d7r6%0o)uai in the ancient writers. See 
Buttm. Coviplete Gr. Gr. 

30 See about the origin of laxov, (tx^^v, from txw, the JVote to sttw. The i in the 
pres. tense tcrxw supplies the place of a redupl. as that in ixifivoj, tt/ttt-w, exactly 
like the i in 'icfrrjiii, only that in 'iaxi>i the spiritus asper was converted into a lenis 
on account of the x (which was done much more frequently in the old language). 

31 This is erroneously derived from OXOQ, and so is olx^^Ka (see o(%o/Ltat) from 
OIXOQ. Its true derivation becomes obvious from the comparison with the subst. 
oKwxd. The simplest pe7f. of t^^ is oxa, and with the augm. ibxa ; thus that of 
01 XQ is <fX"' Both were in the usual way with the Attic redupl. oiccjxa, oiKw^a 
(for the I of oi'xo/uai natui'ally occurs but once, as in SeiSeKTo) ; yet as of two 
aspirata the second also may be changed, (§ 18. Obs. 1.) ox^ica, oix^ica, were both 
used, and this form was retained for the sake of distinctness. 

32 This form is not '^fin-icrxov, ajUTr-icrxttv, but rjinn-axov, d/^TTi-cxav. It 
should properly be djXTc-kaxov, (like d/uTr-cTxov,) but in the aor. the augm. went 
over from the verb to the 'prep. riixm-axov. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 265 

imper. t,riQL, to which, however, the preceding forms were preferred. This 
verb is used by the classic Attic writers as a defective verb along with the 
more perfect verb (^looj. The tenses ^rjdio or ^r]aonai, i.Z,r}aa, 'i^rjKa, occur but 
little or not at all in the old writers. The lonians lengthened ^w into ^ww : 
this produced with them a new formation, ^aiw, 'Ccjsiq, ?fe>£rf , tK(jJov. (§ 105. 
06s. 10. Note.) 

Zevyvv/bii, {I join,) fut. Z^v^oj) &c. (§ 112, 14.) aor. 2. pass, 

IZyyW' 
Zi^vvvfXL, [I gird,) fut. ^wcrw, &c. perf. pass. tZ^afxaL (§ 112, 14). 

MED. 

H. 

J7fiai. see § 108. II. | rj}ii, ijv, see (prjfjtl, § 109. I. 

i^fivb) {I sink). The Homeric vTrsixvrjfiVKe {II. %. 491.) is most correctly derived 
from this verb. It may be assumed that, whenever a verb began with a long 
vowel, this vowel was shortened by the redupl. : thus IfxrifivKa. The metre 
required a doubling of the first ft, instead of which the poets used fj,v, as is 
done in other words ; ex.gr. aTrdXafivoQ from TraXafir], vojvvfxvog for vojvvfxog. 

rirrdofiai, riffadofiai, only in the pass. The Ionic writers have kaaoviiai^ aor. 
kaaa)9r}v. 

e. 

eA"N — , see Qvr]<TKio. 

Odofxai (/ admire, behold). This is the oldest principal theme, of which isolated 
forms have maintamed themselves in Homer and the Doric writers, {OacrOs, 
6r](Taa9ai, Dor. QdaaaOai,) which has given rise to a double change : 1. {6as- 
ofxai, Dor. 6r]so[iai, Ion. 2.) the usual OsdofiaL, {fut. Ofdaofiai, Ion. 9tr]<T0fiaL,) 
Herod, has the form Wtjrjro, (see § 105. Note to 06s. 16.) though commonly 
with the various reading WtjeXTo. With respect to the signif. of this terb, 
Homer uses it only in the sense of admiring, and never has QtaaQai : later 
w^riters use all its forms in the sense of beholding, contemplating. This verb 
must not be confounded with 0AQ, {to nurse, suck,) which see below. 

OdiTTU), (I bury,) aor. 2. pass. lTa(l>r]v, (§ 18.) aor. 1. lOd^Oriv 
(Herod.), pei'f. pass, ridafiixai, reOdcpOai. 

9A$ — ;pe?/. as pres. TsOrjTra, {I am astonished,) where the second aspirata is changed, 
whilst in the aor. eraipov the first is changed. (See § 18, 2.) 

QAQ, an Epic defective verb, of which there occurs the aor. 1. act. 9rj(7ai, {to nurse, 
suck,) and the med. 9ri<j9ai, (see § 105. 06s. 5 and 16.) 9r]aa(y9ai, to suck, milk. 
See 9do[xai. 

9idofiai, see 9doixai. \ 9s\w, see s9eX(jj. 

Oipofiaii {I warm myself,) is a defective verb, of which nothing 
occurs in prose but the pres. and imper. ; but Homer has 
also the fut, OEpaofiai, and the conj. aor. pass. {iQipr\v) 

O^pid). 

Biadaadai, [to obtain by prayers,) 9i<j(TavTo, &c. a defective «or. 

Verbal adj. OecFToc (TroXvOeaTog, &c.). 
Bid), {I run,) fut. O^vaojULaL or OevGovpaL (§ 95. Obs. 17.) — no 

other tense occurs ; see T^ix^' 



266 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

6i)soixai, seeOa'ojuat: QrjaOai, see QAQ,. \ 0Hn — , see 6A$. 

Oiyydvd), {I touch,) formed of Oiyw ", fat. Oi^ojuLai, aor. Wijov, 
6v{](JK(x}, {I die,) from GANQ, aor, Wavov, airWavov, fat, Oavov- 
juai, aTToQavovfxaL, perf, rWvriKay (as if it were from 0NAQ, 
see § 110, 11.) whence the following shortened forms, 
(according to § 110, 10.) in common use, rWvajuiev, ute, 
T^OvacTiv, IriQvaaaVi reOvdvai, (reOvavai, see ibid, the Note 
to Obs, 6.) Tedvairjv, riBvadi, part. redvi^Kwg, {Ion. Te9vY}U}g,) 
commonly 9nasc. and neut. reOveiog, (Hom. TEOveiiog,) 
gen, CoroQifem. reOveCjcja (see ibid, Obs, 6. c). 

There is an Attic collateral form of the fut. derived from TsOvrjKa, 
Te9vf]^w, or rsQvrj^onai, Verbal adj. Ovijtoq, mortal. 
Oopelv, see ^pwcr/cw. j Opdcjao), see rapdcraoj. 

ePE4> — , see rplpw. [ GPEX— , see rp^xw. 

OpvTTTfjj, {I break ifi pieces,) aor. 2. pass. Irpvcpriv (§ 18, 1). 
OpwcTKO), (I leap, skip,) made of GOPtl, aor. Wopov, fat. Oopov- 

fiai, Ion, Oopiofxai, see § 110, 11. 
eY4>— , see rixpu). \ Ovu), see § 18. Obs. 2, and § 95. 06s. 4. 

I. 

iSpooj, see § 105. Obs. 6. 

ISpvio, {I set, place,) has in Homer and in the later koivoi the aor. 1. pass. IdpvvOrjv, 
as if it were from 'lAPTNQ ^*. 

"iZ^, KadiZ^i {I seat, sit down, Med, I sit myself down^ fat. 
KaOitj, (for KaOiad), according to § 95, 9.) MED, KaOiZv- 
(TO/biaL, aor. eKdOicra, compare eZojuai, 

LKvioum, (/ come,) more commonly d(l>iKVEO}.iai, fut, 'iE,oiuiai, aor, 
LK6fir)v, perf, lyfiai, d(j)XyfJLaL, infin, dcpi^^Oai, 

The Epics use in the pres. and imperf. the radical form Vkw with the aor. 
l^ov (§ 96, 9). This pres. Vkw has a long i, hence in the Epic all the foi-ms 
belonging to the act., which are merely the pres. and imp>erf., always occur 
as long only. The aor. 2. IkojUJ^j/ properly has a short i, which is long in the 
indie, simply through the augment ; hence in the Epics, who may neglect 
the augment, it is sometimes short and sometimes long, but in the collateral 
moods {iKsaOai, iKoifirjv, Sec.) it is constantly short. The derivative form 
hcdvoj has a short i in the i^res. tense. See about ccTriicaTai the 06s. IV. 3. 
to § 103. 

iXdcTKojuaL, [I conciliate, propitiate,) fut, iXdaojuLcu, (a,) from the 
more uncommon 'IXd/uiai, for which Homer also has IXdoiuai, 
The act, had the intrans, signif. to be propitious, whence 

33 The forms Oiyeiv, Oiycjv, which occur, ought probably to be accented like the 
aor. 

3* Compare § 112, 12, and dfjLTrvvvOr] under 7rv8w,and the Epic superl. iOvvrara 
from iOvg, § 115. 06s. 6. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 267 

poets had the imper. tXrj^i and "ika^i, conj, and opt. perf. 
(as ap?'es. tensej i\i]Kii}, 1\i]koihl. 

'iTTTanai, see Traronai. | 'i(TT]f.ii, see § 109. III. 

K. 

KAA — 5 1.) KSKaajjiai, KSKadiuai, see Kaivvfiai. 2.) KSKuSeXv, fut. rjcjeiv, &c. see 

KTjdoj and x^Z^- 
KaOs^ofxai, KciOevCo), KaOrinai, KaOi^co, see s^o^tat, evCio, rjnai, t^w. 
Kaiivfiat (/ a??i of' distinct'iGn, excel). To this rer6 belongs the per/. KSK.a(T[j.ai., Dor. 

KSKaSfxai ^^, which has the same signif. 

Kaiwy (/ bio'n, set fire to.) is transitive^ Attic kcllo, (a and with- 
out contr.) fut. KavG(i}, &c. (§ 95. Obs, 9.) pass. aor. 1. 
kKavOi]v, and aor. 2. eKarjv (a). Verbal adj. KavarioQ, 
KavGTog, KavTog. 

The Epics have an aor. 1. without the a, iKrja (§ 96. 06s. 1) ; whence 
arises, through sliortening the j] into e, the part. Ksag m Attic poets (^sch. 
Agarn. 858. Eurip. I^hes. 97). With the Epics this f is again changed into 
£1, (compare (jreluj, fSeicj, &c. § 107- Obs. 4.) imper. Ktiov,med. iceiavro, and 
the cow/. ne'ioiLtv, (for Ki)wjxiv, see O65. Y. 15, to § 103.) which is in the II. ij. 
333. instead of t\\efut. (see § 139. Obs. 1. I. 4.) The 2^^'^s. tense kt^o), ke/w, 
and inf.n. KaTaKsisp.iv, {II. //. 408.) are doubtful. 

KaXi(jt), {I call,) fut. koXectoj, Attic koXw, licaXeGra, KEKXr]Ka, ejcXi}- 
6r]v, &c. (§ 110, 11.) peif. pass. KEKXvfJ-cih (^ «^^^ called, 
named^) opt. KEKXijimriv, KEK\yjo, &c. § 98. Obs. 9. — MED. 

Kctfivu), (I grow iveary,) from KAMO, (§ 112, 12.) aor. sKainov, 
fut. Ka^uov/ucu, perf. KiKjuriKa, (as if it were of KMx'VQ, § 110,, 
11.) 'Epic paii. KeKiiYjiog, gen. orog and wrog. 

Kavd^aiQ, see dyvvjii. \ fceT/iai, see § 109. II. 

KiXofiai, [I exhort., command^ fut, KeXrioojuiai, &c. aor. EKeKXojuriv, 
(§ 110, 4, 6). As for etcXio, see /cXiw. 

KSVTSw, {I prick, sting,) is regular, but Homer has 11. -ip. 337- the iiif.n. aor. 1. 
Ksvcrai from the radical form KENTQ (whence kovtoq, a long pole). 

KEoavvvjiL^ {I mix,) or Kipvdu)} rjini, old; KEpdtJ} (§112,14,15.) 
fut. KEodau), aor. EKEodaa : there is a syncope, or rather a 
metathesis ^^, with a long a in the pe?f. KEKpaica, pass. 

KEKpafiai, EKpdOtjV, Ion. K£KplJ/iaf. But KEKEOaCJfjLaL, EKEpdaOr^v, 

were also used. 

2^ The signif. of these forms, and the analogy of paivo), pdcrcrars, tppdcarai, 
show that they belong together. 

35 The £ not being omitted, but rather coalesced with the a, whence it became r], 
but a with the Attics (as usual after p). Compare § 110, 11. 



268 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Homer has the aor. 1. act. KpfjaaL, Od. t]. 164. Observe also the accent 
oil the Homeric conj. Kspujvrai {11. d. 260 ^^). 

KEpdaivd), {I gain, earn,) is regular in the Attics [aor, icEpSavat) ; 
with the lonians and several later writers Kep^rjaofiai, 
eKip^r}(ja, Sec. perf. KEKipdana, (§ 101. Obs. 8. Note,) and -riKa, 

Ksu), see Ktifiai and Kaiio. 

k//Sw, (/ afflict, grieve,) KijSojuat and KUrj^a, {I take care, care 
for,) whence the Homeric fut. KSKa^r^croiuLaL, {II. 6. 353.) 
shortened, (as rWrfXa, TtOaXvIa,) imper. aor, med. KijEeaa 
for -r^aai. 

KLxdvu) and Kixavoimai, {I reach, attain,) Ki)({]aofxai, lKi\Yi(jafir]Vj 
aor, 3. Iklxov, as if of KIXQ. It has a collateral form of 
the imperf. and the dependent moods of the pres. from 
KIXHMI, which, in most cases, keeps the »/ unchanged : 
lKL)(r]iizv, lKixy]Tr\v, — KixJivaL, [kl\C}^ KLxdco, Kix^Lrjv, Kix^).g, 
KixhiuLEvog, &c. fut. KLxfidOfiai, aor. 1. s/ct^^rjo-a/xrjv, aor. 2. 
£/cfxo»^» Ktx<^v (as if from KIX12). — See about the quantity, 
§ 112. Obs, 8. 

KixptiiJii, see XQ"'^- 

Kiuj, {I go,) occurs little in the indie, pres., but we meet so much the more fre- 
quently in poets with the imperf. tKiov, and the dependent moods, ex. gr. Kioifii, 
part. Kih)v, which has the accent on the final syllable without being an aor., 
exactly like i<jjv of dfii, of which verb in general these forms are to be con- 
sidered as collateral (IQ, KIQ). 

icXa^w, (/ clang, shout,) fut. kXclj^w, &c. (§92. Obs, 1.) perf, 
KeKXayya, identical with the pres. (§ 113. Obs, 14.) whence 
fut, KeKXdyE,ofjLai. Poets have also without the nasal sound 
aor. iK\ayov,perf. KiKXtiya, part. KeKXriyovTcg, See § 111, 2. 
See f/cXaJa in /cXftw. 

icXa/tu, (/ weep,) Attic kXchjj [a and without contr.), fut, K\avao- 
fxai or KXavaovfim, aor. £/cXai»c7a (§ 95. Obs, 9). The fut, 
K\aLri(T(i) or K\a{](joj is more uncommon. — Verbal adj. 
KXavariog, KXavdTog, KXavrog. — MED. 

kXclo), {I break,) /cXao-w, (a,) &c. the jya^^. takes the a, part, aor, 2, 
Poet. kXclq, (aTTO/cXac,) § llO, 6. 

kXho), {I close, shut,) is regular: perf, pass, icIicXff^at and 

KtKkEKTfXai, 

There is an Ionic collateral form kXtjIu), KXrjtau), Att. Kkyw, whence 
KSKXyfiai. The Doric Kkd^w, (properly kX^'^w,) hXa^a, comes from the 
fut. KXrjtau). 



^' This points to a form Kspafxai, after the analogy of § 107. 06s. III. 5. Com- 
pare Kpefxavvvfjii, Kpsfxafiai, conj. Kpkjxioixai. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 269 

KXiw, kXhcj, {I celebrate, sing,) KXto/nai, (/ am celebrated,) kXco, 
2 imp erf. for kXleo (§ 105. Obs. 7). — But Kl/cArj/ca belongs 
to KoKid), and keicXsto to KsAo/XOi. 

kXvo), (/ hear,) a poetic terb, whose imperf. tKXvov has the signif. of the aor. (§ 96, 
Obs. 3.) imper. k\ve, kXvsts, and icXvOt, K\i)re, (§ 110. 6.) or with the redupl. 
(§ 83. 06s. 7.) kskXvOi, kskXvts, paii:. pass. KXvfjLsvog, (renoicned,) § 110. 8. 

KMA — J see KayivdJ. \ Kvaoj, see § 105. Obs. 5. 

Kopivvv/mi, {I satiate,) fut. Ko^iaw, &c. (§ 112^ 14.) perf. pass. 
K^Kop^dfiai, Ion. KEKopYifjiai, Epic jo«r/. KBKOpriwg, (§ 97. 
0^*5. 7.) with the signif. of the pass.— Kopeio, ££<C:5 is the Ion. 
fut. 

This verb must not be confounded with Kopsu), jjcw, / sweep). 

KpaZ,(i), commonly KSKpaya, {I baivl out,) see § 113. Obs, 14. 

KEKpayfiev, KiKpa\6i, &c. (§ 110, 9.) /w^. KeKpa^oimat, aor, 

EKpayov. 
Kpaivoj, {I fulfil, accomplish,) admits in the Epics a lengthening 

in all its parts, e<2?. gr. iKpaiaivev, Kprfrivai, [aor. 1.) KeKpaavrai, 
KPA — , see Kspdvvvixi. 

KpE/aavwiuL, {I hang np, suspend,) pass, KpEfidvwfiai, [I am sus- 
pended, hung from,) and as med. (I Jiang myself) Kpijua- 
juai, (after 'laTafiai,) I hang, intrans. and its conj. Kpifxwfiai, 
opt. KpEfxaLfii]v, and also KpEfxoifxriv^^ , fut. act. Kpmdad), [d,) 
Att. KpeiuLU), aq, a, &c. The aor. pass. iKphfidaQriv is common 
to the pass, and middle voice, and intrans., but the fut, 
pass. KpEjuacrOnaofxai belongs merely to KpEfxavvvfiai : there 
is a particular fut, intrans, KpEfMrjCTOfjiai {I shall hang loose, 
wave to and fro). 

This repartition of forms and significations is, on the whole, confirmed by 
the Attic writers ; but it must not be expected that authors never deviated 
from this analogy 2^. KpE/uawas Sipi'es. tense occurs only in later writers. — 
Kprjfivrjfii is an Attic collateral form in the pres. and imperf. 

KpVTTTU), KpVTTTa(TKOV, SCC Obs. II. 1. tO § 103. 

KTOLOfiai, {I acquire,) perf as pres, KiKTr}iuai, (/ possess,) and 

tKTr}fiaL, (§ 83. Obs, 1.) conj, and opt. see § 98. Obs, 9; 

and about the opt, kektwjuijv, see Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr, 

§ 98. Obs. 17. 
KTEivii), [I kill, slay,) fut. ktevu), see § 101. Good writers use 

merely EKTova as perf . 

Homer has a fut. Kravsu), (see Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr.) and its medium 
&s pass. II. ^. -iSl. KaTaKTavUaQs. 

'^ Aristoph. Vesp. 298. Kpkp.oiaQ(, see § 107. 06s. III. 5. and compare ixapvoifxrjv. 
^^ In German the same happens with hangen and h'dngen, erh'dngte and erhing ; 
and in English with hung and hanged. 



270 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

There is also a poetical ao7'. tKTav^ ag, a, 3 pers. pi. t'/crav, (for -aaav,) conj. 
KTtu), (for KTU), see § 1 07. Obs, IV. 8.) infin. ktcihiv, KTOfisvai, (for KTavai,) 
part. KTctg, pass. sKTaixrjv, KTanevoQ, ktcktOoi. See about all these forms, 
§ 110, 6, 7- Homer has also the aor. pass.'^^ sicTdOrjv, and iKrdvOiiv (§ 101, 
Obs. 6). 

Independently of the very un- Attic pei-f. iKTaKu and tjcrayKa, there is 
another form kKvovijKa, (§ 112, 9 ) of which the Atticism is doubtful. 
KTijiEvoQ, see § 110, 7- I KrvTr'su), § 96. Obs. 5. 

Kvvlwy [I kiss, from KYQi,) kvgw, EKVcra (u). 

The compound TrpoaKVVsu) {I prostrate myself, icoj'ship,) is commonly regu- 
lar ; but in the Poets we also meet with TrpocrKvGai, &c. See particularly 
another /cuw. 

Kvpew, (/ light on, meet ivith,) is regular, but has a collateral 
form KvoLo. Deponens^ Kvpofxai, imperf. eKvpov,fut. Kvpatj, 
aor. EKvpaa. 

Kvw or Kvi(x) [to be pregnant, to conceive). Kv/o-kw or -ojuat, 
/ impregnate, is regular in the second form Kviii), but the 
Poets have also an aor. 1. med. iKvaaiinv.^^ Compare 



A. 

Xayx^vw, (/ obtain by lot or fate,) from AHXQ, (§ 112, 13.) 
fut. X-n^ofiat, aor. 'iXaxov, perf. aXrj;^a, (§ 83. Obs. 3.) or 
XiXoyX^ (as if from AErXO). 

The lonians said in the fut. Xd^ofxai (see § 27- Obs. 6). The Homeric aor. 
\s\ax(~iv has the causative signif. to impaii:. 
AAK — , see \d(TK(o. 

Xa/uL^avti), {I take.) from AHBO, (§ 112, 13.) fut. Xr]-ipoiuai, aor. 
eXajdov, imper. Xdj3e and Xajd^, {Obs. I. 4. to § 103.) perf. 
aiXr)cl>a (§ 83. Obs. 3).— MED. 

The lonians have \e\d[3i]ica, (§ 111, 3.) and (from AAMBQ) \dix\po[j,ai, 
i\dfj.(pOT]v, XeXannai, XafXTrrsvg. 

XavOdvu), more rarely Xt/^w, (/ am hidden,) Xriaco, eXaOov, XiXrjOa. 

— Med. XavOdvojuLai, more rarely XrJ^o/iat, [I forget,) Xriaojuai, 

tXa^Ojurjv, XiiXr](Tfj.ai. 

Homer has in the aor. XtXaOuv, XsXaQeaOai, but the former merely as a 
causative of the middle voice, to cause to forget, make one forget, in which 
sense he uses the pers. XtjOdvoj. The Ionic dialect has in the peyf. pass, a, 
XeXacTnai (§ 27. Obs. 6). 

^0 This tense in common language was not used from this verb ; they had, instead 
of it, tOavov, dirkQavov, in a,pass. sense {aTreQavtv vtt' avTOv). 

*i The usual reading Kvaaafiivrj rests barely on the seeming relation to eKvffa 
from Kvvkui. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 271 

XdcTKto, (/ emit a sound, speak, Ion. XrjKsw, Dor. Xajcfw,) from 
AAK12; aor. 2. IeXcikov, and as med. XEXaKOjuriv, [Hymn. 
Merc. 145.) whence (according to § 111^ 3.) fid. XaKriao/jLat, 
aor. 1. l\aK.i](Ta,^'^ perfi (as pres., see § 113. Obs. 14.) 
XeXofca, Ion. XeXrjfca : as an Epic shortening, XeXa/cuta. 

Xaw, see Xw. | AEFX — , see Xayxavix). 

Xiycj, to say, has no p erf . act. whatever, and the perf. pass, is 
XiXtyfiai^ iXex^^v. But in the sense of to collect, in which 
it has some compounds, the perfi act. is elXoxa, {<jvv£!Xoxa>) 
and theperfi. pass, most commonly is siXejiuLai^ (§ 83, Obs. 3.) 
aor. £Xiyr}v {ex. gr. KareXljTqaav). — MED. SiaXlyojuai (/ 
converse) has SieiXejiuLai, but in the aor. ^leXexOriv. 

Homer has likewise the syncopated aor. eXsyfxtju, Ocl. i. 335. joi7ied X'skto, 
Od. ^.451. counted. 

The old poetical Xe^ai, {to lay down, put to sleep,) Xk^acrOai, {to lie down, 
rest,) has along with this form the syncopated aor. (§ 110, 8.) IXeyixrjv, Xkicro, 
imper. Xs^o, and according to § 96. Obs. 9. Xs^eo. But that this verb is a quite 
different radical foi'm, has been shoAvn in Buttm. Lexilogus, II. 78. 9, 10. 

XfXffXi^oTfCj {moving the to7igue, licking, lapping,) a defective 
part, perfi. in Hesiod. See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 1. p. 7. 
Note. 

XtXirjuai, {I am hent on,hasten, strwe,) an Epic joer/*., which seems to belong to AIAQ, 
but squares with none of the signif. of this radical form. Hence the ex- 
planation is very probable that it stands for XtXiXrjfxki^og for the sake of 
euphony, omittiijg the last X, from XiXaw, XiXaiofJiai, {I desire ardently, strive 
for^^.) See 'QMitm. Lexilogus, I. 21. 

AHB— , seeXa/ij8aVw. | Xrj9u), see XavOdvo). 

XrjKioj, see XdcTKOJ. | AHX — , see Xay%aVw. 

AIA — , see XtXhjfxat. 

Xiaaoixai, seldom XiTOjuai, {I implore, supplicate,) fut. Xiaofim, aor. 
iXiaafxriv and lXiT6fir]v. 

Xovu) {I wash). In this verb the Attics have, instead of the 
pei^s. forms with the short connecting final vowel, shortened 
forms, ex. gr. 3 pers. imperfi sXov, pi. eXovfieVi pass. Xovjuai, 
&c. Xov(70ai.— MED. 

The lengthened forms are a contraction of the old Xo£a», (Horn. IXSevv, 



*2 The a in these forms is short, ex. gr. Aristoph. Pac. 382, The passage in 
Aristoph. Nub. 410. {CLuXaKriffaaa,) is a deviation. 

*3 Such sacrifices of analogy to pronunciation are not uncommon in a language, 
which is just beginning to be polished. We have a similar instance in the poetical 
word eKTTayXoQ, {dreadful,) which is admitted to be derived from tKirXayrivai, not 
by a transposition, but with the termination Xo^, (§119, 13.) instead oi iKirXayXog. — 
Exactly in the same way we have TrueXog for irXveXog, from irXvio, ttXvvoj. 



272 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

XosaffUL,) but the shortened ones did not originate in a syncope {Xovfxai, like 
olfiai, according to § 110,5): the accentuation tXovfxev, iXovTo, (not eXovfiiv, 
fXovro, like Ikilto, tpvTo,) and the injin. Xovv, which also occurs, show that 
they are a contraction of the radical form AO^, whence the Homeric aor. X6e. 

Xvw, see § 95. Obs. 4. and about Xvto § 110, 7. opt.perf. XeXvro, 

§ 98. Obs. 9. 
X(o, {I wish, long for,) Xrjg, Xri, Spers,pLXwvri, a Doric defective 

verb. 

M. 

fxaivoiiai, (/ am mad,) fut. fiavov/mai, aor. ^ludvr^Vi perf. (with the 
same signif. as the pres. tense) juLtfir^va. But the aor. act. 
efxr]va (Aristoph. Thesm. 561.) has the causative meaning, 
to make mad, in which sense the compound iKfxaivis) is, 
however, more usual (§ 135, Obs. 1). 

Theocr. (10, 31.) has fiiiiavrifiai (§ 111, 3), with the signif. of the pres. 
tense like fiaivofjiai. 
Haiofxai, see MAQ. { MAK — , see ixrjKaonai. 

fxavOdvu), {1 learn,) from MHGO, aor. ejuaOov, fut. ixaBrtnoixai, 
perf lUB/jidewa (§ 112, 13. and 111, 3). 

The fut. fiaQevfjiai, see § 95. Obs. 16. 
HaTTseiv, see fidpTTTd). 

/mapvajum, {I fight, combat,) after 'Idrafxai, has merely a pres. and 

imperf, imper. juapvao, (§ 107. Obs. IV. 4.) opt. fjLa^voLiJLr}v 

(§ 107. Obs. III. 5). 
ftapTTTw, (/ catch, seize,) ixdp'^pw, &c. part. perf. fjLZfxapTrwq, 

aor. 2. (£/zaf>7rov,) fxifxaQirov, and abbreviated ejuairov, iiairiuv, 

Spers.pl. opt. fiEixdiroL^v (for juctTrotEv). 
lxd\ofiaL, [I fight,) fut. juLax^aojuai, commonly iJ.a\oviuai, (§ 95, 

Obs. 15, 16.) aor. eiuiax^(ycLiuLr]v,perf. jnEfxaxniuLaL. Verbal adj. 

fxa^^TioQ diwdi fia\r]TioQ. 

The fut. produced the Ion. pres. tense fxaxeofjiai, and Homer has not only 
jxax^iofitvoQ, but even [xax^ovixsvog, both as pres. tenses. 

Epic Poets use, for the sake of the metre, the fut. naxqaonai, but the aor. 
eHaxs<r(TaTo. ** 
MAQ, an old verb, which occurs chiefly in three signif. and forms : 

1.) Perf. as pres. (fiefiaa,) fxsfxdaai, fxsfxaojg, {gen. fxefiau>Tog,) and with the 

syncope fiifiafxev, fikjxare, 3 pers. pi. plusq. fj,kfia(7av, (§ 110, 10.) to strive, 

desire ardently. 
2.) Pres. med. fidfiai, {I long for, seek or search for,) /jLoJ/JievoQ, contr. of jxdofiai; 

** Some critics write also sfxaxrjcraTo, &c. for the sake of uniformity, contrary 
to the text, which has been handed down to us. 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 273 

but the (1) prevailed : hence, for instance, injin. fiaxrOai, and iniper. juwao, 
(like [xvujio from fivdofiai, ^vuifxai,) see § 105. 06s. 10. Note. 
3.) Pres. med. naiofxai, (/ stir myself, seek,)fut. and aor. med. fidcroixai, kfiaad- 
fir]v, especially in compounds : thus in Homer the imperf. iTrsfxalero, 
Od. I. 441. corresponds exactly to the aor. iTTinaaaayLEvoQ, ibid. 446 • 
Compare ^aid) ddaaaQai, vauo vdaaaQai. 

fxM(jj, [I am intoxicated,) takes its tenses from the pass, 
{lli^d{)adr]v, &c.) : the other act. tenses, except the imperf., 
belong to fieOixjKco, (/ intoxicate, make drunk,) hp.idvaa 
(§ 112. Obs. 6). Med. fxeOvcTKoiaaL {I get drunk). 

liupofjiai, [1 obtain,) aor. t^ifiopov, perf. iiifxo^a^^ (§ 83. Obs, 2). 

From the causative sense (§ 113, 2.) of the act. MEIPQ, to ajyportlon, allot, 
(whence ixepog, a part, portion,) comes the per/, pass, as an impersonal verb, 
and with the syllable ei instead of the redupl. (§ 83. 06s. 3 ) ti[Jia.pTai, it has 
been ordained by fate, part, elfiapfjisvog. We also meet with fx,efi6pT]Tat and 
fie[j,opixivog. 

lj,iXX(t), (I intend, am about to do,) fut. jucXXrjo-w, &c. See about 
the augment, § 83. Obs. 5. 

lniXii), {I am concerned about, take to heart,) is, in its act. form, 

mostly used in the 3 pers, fi^Xei, fxiXovai, fut . juLsXrjaEL, &c. ; 

pass. fiiXofiai, {I have the care of) more usually iTrifiiXofxai, 

fXiXy](TOfiai, €iJ.eXr]9r}v. 

Poets employ the pass, indifferently for the act. ; instead of ixkXei they 
have fieXerai, and the perf. in the sense of the pres. act. fikixriXtv, and pass. 
fjisfi(3\£Tai, (Horn., Hesiod,) which came from ixeixkXrjTai, according to § 19. 
06s. 1. and by shortening ; compare juIjUveo and dp-qpEfiai. 

fiivio, (/ remain,) has in the perf fXEfxivriKa, § 101. Obs. 9. — 
Verbal adj. meverEog. 

From another MENQ, (whence nsvog,) which does not occur in the pres. 
tense, comes the Ionic and Poet. perf. li'sjxova {I resolve, intend, compare 
fisveaivit)). This /xg/xova is related to fxsixaa, compare ysyova, ysyaa^^. 

METIli, fxefierifxivog, see § 108. I. 5. 

juL-nKaofxaL {I bleat). 

The old poet, forms of this verb are part. aor. fxaKujv, perf. /i£ju?//ca, whence 
the Homeric shortened jxefidKvXa, (§ 97. Obs. 3.) and of which, as it has the 
signif. of the 2y)'es., there is again an imperf. six'sfxijicov (111, 2). 



*5 We meet only with the 3 pers. timogs in the old Epic poets, and in most 
passages as a distinct ^e>/., like KSKTtjTai, ex. gr. Od. t. 335. Only in the II. a. 278. 
it is a distinct aor. 

*s The Lyric passage in Eurip. Iphig. Aul. 1495, where fisfwva is the perf. of 
the usual verb fisvu), cannot, as a solitary instance, be of any avail against the general 
usage, not only of the Attic poets, but even of Herod, in his prose, (6, 84.) and the 
two verbs must be carefully distinguished, though they may be supposed to be ety- 
mologically connected. 

T 



274 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

jjLialvio (7 }>ollute). The aor. takes the ij. The Homeric fiidvOrjv, II. d. 146. is ex- 
plained as the 3 pi., for nidvOijcxav, fxiavOev : it is, more probably, the 3 dual 
of the syncopated aor. {sing. sfxiav-To,) dual kfxidv-crQrjv, efudvOrjv, § 110. Obs. 3. 

fxiyvvjiL^ and jLuayto, (I mix,) fut. fxi^to, &c. (§ 112, 14.) 

fiLfiv{](jKw, {I remind,) from MNAO, /«^^. fivy^aoj. Sec. ; pass, /ii- 
/mvYiaKOjuai, {I remember, recollect, it occurs to me, I men- 
tion^ hjUVijaOr^v, iuvr)aOr](TOjuaL, fwr^crTog, The perf. juijuvr^imai 
becomes the pres. [I recollect, still remember,) conj. jul^jllvu)- 
juai, y, 7}Tai, &c. (see § 98. Obs. 9.) opt. fxefxviiiuriv, Attic 
lUEjuLvoijULriv or fxznvii^jiy]v, fi^iivi^To, a contr. of the Ionic 
luL£fxvswij,Yiv, luLEijLvic^To {II. ip. 361 *^). To thls pcrf. belongs 
the fut. 3. iiziivi]GOfxaL [I shall remember). 

Abbreviations occur in Homer's fi'sfivy, (/isjuvfai,) for fisfivrjffai, and in 
Herod.'s imper. fxefivso for fi'sfxvrjao. Compare above nkji^XtTai. 

The simple form, (fivdoixai,) juvwjuai, is barely Ionic in the above sense, 
and fiveM[xevog, fivMovro, fxvMio, &c. (see § 105. Obs. 10. Note,) are Ionic 
lengtlienings. But in the sense of to sue for in marriage, to woo, we also meet 
with fxvdcrOai in the common language. 

jxoXelv, see jSXwctkw. 

fjivKaofiai, {I roar, bellow,) from MTK12, must be noticed on 
account of its Epic forms ijxvKOv, imifivKa. Compare 
jmriKaofJiai. 

N. 
vaiu), {I dwell,) takes its tenses from the pass, and med. from 
NAG, with short a, fut. vacrojULai, aor. IvacrOr^v or kvacrafjLrjv, 
perf. (with later writers) vivaafim. The act. evaaa (j^vacrcra) 
has the causative signif. to cause to inhabit, to settle. 

vcLGGw, [I stuff,) va^ii), &c. — vivadfxai, vaaroQ (§ 92. Obs. 2). 

vi}i(jj, [I distribute, apportion,) fat. vt/xw and vefirjcrtt), aor. 'ivsL/mu, 
perf. vEviinriKa, &c. aor. pass. lvEfxr}6r]v and hsfULWrtv. — 
MED. 

V8(jj, 1.) I heap up, occurs chiefly in the pres. and imperf. only with the Ionic and 
Epic lengthenings vijw, vijsoj, vr}vkia,fut. vrjcroj, aor. evrjcra, Ion. svrjrjcra, &c. 
2.) / spin, is regular, vrjcju), &c. The contractions o, ov in the pres. tense 
are not in ov, but, contrary to analogy, in w : vaxri, vCJvrog, &c. The new 
pres. is vrfQu). 

3.) I swim, fut. vtvaoixai and vsvaovfiai, (§ 95. Obs. 17-) evevaa, &c. 
4.) The poet. ve7^b vitaOai {to go away, return,) has commonly the signif. 
of the fut. in the indie, pres. vkofxai, or vsvjxai, 2 pers. vtXai (§ 105. Obs. ?)• 

viZo), (I wash,) takes its tenses from the verb viirroj, which is 
used in the^re^. vi\pio, &c. — MED. 

^^ See about all these forms, Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 98. Obs. 15 — 17- 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 275 

void) in the Ionic dialect contracts the orj as in j3oa(i)^ ex. gr, 
vwo-w, tvioaa, Ivevuyro. 

vvarnZto, (/ nod the head with drowsiness, I sleep,) wgtckjijj and 
vvara^w, &C. (§ 92. Obs. 1.) 

O. 
6^(1), (/ smell, viz. emit a smell,) fut. 6Z7](7U), (Ion. otiicrw,) &c. : 
the perf. odto^a has the power of the pres. tense. 

otyw or otyvvfiL [I open). 

The Epics separate the diphthong in the augmented forms, wtyvvvro, wt^f. 
The following compound is most used : 

dvoiyu) or dvoiyvvfii, (J open,) has the augment in the anomalous way 
stated in § 84, Ohs. 8. imperf. dvscpyov, aor. dv's(^^a, infin. dvoX%ai, perf. 1. 
dviiiixa. The perf. 2. dvsii)ya has the signif. of a neuter verb, I stand open. 
The forms ijvoL^a, rivoiyrjv, belong to later writers. 
olda, see § 100. III. 

oioixai, [I am of opinion, mean,) imperf. (o6fxr}v, the 1 pers. sing, 

is also oifjiai, imperf. (ffir)v^^, fut. olriaoimaL, aor. ioyjOyjv, 

olr]9rivai. 

The Epics make also use of the act. form, and resolve the diphthong : 6iw, 
otofxai, (i,) whence diiadfiriv, wtaOrjv, &c. 

oLxofiai, [I go away, am off,) ol^^aojiai, perf. mx^juql or o'/x^fca 
(see the Note to e;)^^, o^wKa). 

Homer has also ^'x??/ca, Tropt^'^jj/ca, II. k. 252. — See about the verb Buttm. 
Complete Gr. Gr. 
01 — , see olofxai and (pepoj. 

oXiaOavw, commonly -aivio, (/ slide, slip,) oXiaOriait), wXktOov 
(§ 112, 13). 

oXXvjui, {I ruin, destroy,) from OAQ, fut. oXw, aor. wXeaa, perf. 
6X(o\eKa. — MED. oXXvjuaL, {I am undone, perish,) fut. oXou- 
fbiaL, aor. wXg/xijv, inf. 6\i(TBai,to which belongs jse//. 2. oXwXa. 

The poet. part. oXofievog, ovXofxsvog, becomes an adj. with act. signif. 
ruinous, pernicious: the collateral Epic form oXekw came from the i:>erf. — 
Compare § 111, 2. 

ofxvvfjLi, {I swear,) fut. bfiovixai, u, urm, &c. ojUHaOat from 0M12, 
(§ 112, 14.) aor. coiuoaa, perf. o/xw/uoica, perf pass. bfiiljixodfiaL, 
but the rest wdth the aor. more usually without g, ofxojjuoTai, 
o)fi66riv, as if from OMOQ.— MED. 

ofiopyvvjuLi, [I wipe off,) fut. ofiop^u), &c. § 112, 14. — MED. 

^8 The old grammarians observe that the forms ot/xai, (^/J-rjv, were used only of 
a firm conviction, which Attic urbanity thus stripped of the harshness of a strong 
affirmation. 

T 2 



276 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

bvLvi)fiL^^, [I benefit, am of advantage to,) after "kjtyijxl: it has no 
imperf, active (for which hx^tiXow is used) ; it makes from 
ONAO, 6v{](yw, wvr](7a. — MED. bvivafiai, {I am benefited, 
derive advantage from,) aor. 2. Mvrjitjir}v, {ncFo, riro,) or wvafxriv, 
opt, 6vaifxr]v, infin. ovacrOai. 

The indie. 6}vafji,r]v is used by later writers, and in Homer belongs to 
ovofiai. We meet with the aor. pass. o)vri9r)v in Xen. Anah. 5, 5, 2. 

ovopiai, [I insult,) radical form ONOO, whence the pres, and 
imperf after didoiuai, the 2 pers. sing, ovoaai, imper. ovoao, 
fut. ovoao/Jiai, aor. wvoerOriv and Mvorrafxifjv. 

Homer has from the still simpler form ONQ the 2 pei's. pi. pres. ovveaOs, 
aor, MvaTO. 
on — , see opdoj. 

bpad), [I see,) imperf. Ion. lopcov, commonly Iwpwv, (§ 84. Obs. 8.) 
pe7f. kwpaKa ^"5 aor. eidov, C. tSw. O. 'l^oi/lu, l^elv, tSwv, Att. 
Idl, &c. Med. £lB6iur}v, [^^(jOai, Idov, (and as an interjection 
L^ov, lo !) see above aSw, fut, o^pofxai, (I shall see,) from 
OIITO. — Pass, perf iiLpa/uiai, or (Lfji/am, w^ai, (Ltttgi, &c. 
(l)(j)Bai, aor. w(l)Or]v, ocjiOrivai (in later writers also opaSnvai). 
Verbal adj. opareog, oparbg, b-rrTog. 

The perf. 2. ojrajTra (/ have seen) belongs to the dialects and the poets. — 
See about Homer's oprjai, § 105. Obs. 16, with the Note. 

The antiquated ETriovpojuat, aor. €7rtau//ajwr;v, to select, must be carefully dis- 
tinguished from l7r6\po[jiai. 

opyvfii, (/ rouse, excite,) from OPQ, fut. bpcrtj, aor. 1. oi/oo-a 
(§ 101. Obs. 3). — Med. opwinai, {I rise,) aor. o)p6fxr}v, 3 pers. 
sing, lopero and iLpTo, (see § 110,8.) infin. 6p9ai,part. bpfiz- 
voQ, (for bpiaOai, bpofxsvog,) imper. opao, and according to 
§ 96. Obs. 9. 6p(7eo, 

The per/. 2. bpwpa belongs to this intrans. or immediative signif. (§ 113, 2 ) 
I am risen; but Mpoptv (see § 85. Obs. 2.) is aor. {ex.gr. Od. r. 201.) like 
rigaptv, and most generally has, like it, the transitive or causative signif. (he 
excited). The passive-like form opwptrai agrees in sense with the perf . opcjpe 
(compare above dprjpa, apr^pefiai). Lastly, Homer has likewise the pres. and 
imperf. of opofiai and opkajxai, I hasten, move about, {Od. ?. 104 II. (S. 398.) 
but they are attended with some difficulty : see Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. 

ba^paivofxai, [I smell, trans.) bcr^prifToiiaL, aor. wo-^po/ir^v, § 112, 
13. Ion. ba(l>pafxr]v, (Herod. 1, 80, 26.) according to § 96. 
Obs. 1. with WieNote. 

^9 This is derived from ONAQ through a, redupl. with t, (vvhich, as in tVr»]ftt, 
&c. does not take place in the aor. 2.) whereby the redupl. of verbs beginning with a 
consonant {Sioojfxi) is imitated in the same way as the redupl. of the perf. by what is 
called the JlMic redupl. Compare drtraXXwaud oTriTrrtww, from draXogand OIITQ. 

^^ In Attic poetry it was either pronounced as a synizesis in the Ionic way wpa/ca, 
or written and pronounced kopaKa. — See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 84. 06s. 11. 



I 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 277 

ovXSfievoc, see oXXvfii. \ ovvicrQf, see ovojxai. 

ovoid), [I make water, stale,) impf. lovpow, &c. fat. ovpriaofxai, 

§ 84. Ods. 5. 
ovrdti), [I wound,) ovri^aw^ &c. ao7\ syncope, [ovrav, § 110, Q, 7.) 

3 sing, ovra, infin. ovrafjiev, (for ovravm,) part. pass, ovrd- 

fxtvog: ovTa(Te, ovTa&iiivog, belong to ovraZio, a collateral 

form. 
oipeiXu), 1. (/ oive, ex. gr. money,) 2. {I ought, am to,) fut. 6^£i- 

XricTb), &C. 

The form axpsXov, sg, s, (commonly o^sXov,) occurs merely as a wish. — See 
the Syntaj:, § 150. Homer has also 6(pkXXu} {II. r. 200.) for oipsiXcj, and for 
ojtpsXov for the sake of the metre oI^eXXov, {II. ?. 350.) which forms must 
not be mistaken for ocpsXXnv, to increase, magnify. Homer also uses this 
verb in an anomalous way in the opt. aor. 1 . b(p'iXXtuv, 3 pers. sing. {II. tt. 651. 
Od. 13. 334.) 

oipXiaKdvu), (/ am guilty, condemned,) fut, orpXrjaw, perf w^Xr^jca, 
aor. cJ^Xov. 

n. 

TraiZd^, {I sport. Joke,) fut. Tral^ojuai, 7raLE,ovjuai. 

In later writers we also find after this formation 'itrai'^a, TreTraiy/xai, &c. 
but the correct Attics always have eTraicra, tt'stt aKSjiai, notwithstanding the 
similarity of the tenses of the followdng verb : 

Traiwi {2 strike, beat.) fut. Traiaoj and 7rat//(rw, but the rest of the 
tenses are e-rraKra, TriiraiKa, kTraiadrjv. — MED, 

IIAP — , TTBTTapsiv, see in Tropuv. 

TrdaaaOai, [to acquire,) liraGafinv, perf. TreTrdiuai, I possess, dif- 
ferent from lirdadfiriv, TrtTracr^ai, see wareofiai. 

Trdax^tJ, {I suffer,) from IIHGO, aor. eiraOov, from IlENGCt, 
pe?f. 7riTrovOa,fut. ireidoiuaL (according to the rule, § 25, 4). 
Verbal adj. -naQnrog. 

From nH9Q are also derived the less frequent forms 7n)(7o^ai, t7rr](Ja, and 
the perf. {TrsTrrjOa,) whence the Homeric TreTraOvla. — See about TrsiroaOt for 
7reTr6v9aTe,% 110. Obs. 5. 

TTaraaaoi, see 7rXrj(j(T<jj. 

TrariojiaL, [I taste, eat,) lTrd(jdfiy]v, TriTracr/xaf, compare ^ariofxai, 

EdaacrOai in data). 
irdOu), {I prevail on, pass. / believe, obey,) to which belong nsi- 

(TOjuiai, iriTTuafxaL, but thejoer/. 2. iriiroSa, I confide. 

The poetical forms are, iTrk-mQuiv, plusq. belonging to Trkiroida, aor. 2. 

iTTiQov, iTTiOofiev, ttettiOov, &c. There is a new form TTiOijacj, tTriOrjaa, in 

the sense of obeying, fuUowing, confiding. 

TTEiKUj, {I shear, comb,) fut. iri^w, &c. — MED. 



278 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Treivyv, see § 105. Obs. 5. | Tre'KTOjxai, see Tracxw and tthOoj. 

weXatiio, anciently TreXaw, (/ approach, and in the old language 

cause to approach,) has with poets the aor. lirXdOr^Vy (long 

a, incorrectly ^TrXdaOr^v,) and liT\r)firiVi both in the sense of 

approaching, formed by the metathesis of § 110. Obs. 7. 

(TTfXa, TrXaa,) pai^t. perf. TrcTrXrjjulvoc* 

TckXo} or TrkXofiai (7 am). This Doric and poetical vei-b suffers a syncope when it 

takes the augment : 3 pers. imperf. irrXe or 'iTrXtro, 2d, ettXeo, fVXei;. There is 

no other tense occurring. This mrb has also this peculiarity, that the imperf. 

of the middle voice very commonly has the signif. of the pres. {eirXsv, thou aii, 

Sec.) To the same verb in its more ancient meaning of I turn, drive, move 

about, (the Latin versor,) belong with the same syncope the compound Epic 

part. kTcnrXoiitvoQ, TrspnrXofxevog, 

nEN9 — , sed 7rdcr;)^w. 

TTSiraptiv, TTETropuv, TrsTrpcjTai, see TTopetv. 

TTSTTTio, see TTEcrtrw. 

-mpcux), {I go over,) regular, Trtpaaw with a, (Ton. Treprjcro),) but the Epic Trspdcru) 
with a belongs to TrnrpdcTKOJ, (/ sell,) which see below. 

Trip^to, commonly wip^ofjiai, aor, 'i-n-apdov, fut. 7rap^ii(T0iuaL, perf, 

TTfTTOp^a. 

TrepOu), {Hay waste, ravage,) aor, tirpaOov (§ 96. Obs. 7), 

Homer has also a syncopated passivc-Yike aor. in the Injin. irspOat of 

STTspOfjLrjv, pi-operly rrepO-Oai, (or TTspaOai,) like dex-Oai, § 110, 8. 
TTSffaiv, see ttittto). 
TriacTw, ttetto), {I cook,) fut. tte^w, &c. from iriirTU), which occurs 

only in later writers in the pres. tense. 
TrerdvvvfXL, {I spread out,) fut. Trirdato, (kit. ttstuj,) &c. (§ 112, 

14.) perf. pass. TriirTajuai, (§ 110, 4) but the aor. pass, is 

again kirerddOrjv. 

TTiTopLaL [I fly with wings) : from this radical form arises by a 
syncope an aor. lirToiiriv, irriaQai, &c. (§ 110, 4t.)fut. ireTri' 
GOfxai, commonly TTTYiGOfxaL. There is a collateral form in 
jut, ^iTTTajuai, aor. eirrdjuiriv, TrrdaOat, &c. 

To this must be added from the act. form, which is never used in the pres. 
tense, a synonymous third aor. 'iTrrrjv, TTTfjvai, Trrdg, &c. 

The pi-es. Trsra/xai and TrsTdofiai with the aor. iTrtTciaQrjv {ex. gr. Anacr, 
40, 6.) belong to the poets and the later prose ; TrsTrorrjfxai alone appears to 
have been used as perf. Poets employed also the pres. Trordoixai, Tt^jTaofiai. 
(See§ 112,9.) 

IIET — , see Tr'nrTit). \ TrevQofjiai, see TrvvOdvoixai. 

TTs^vov, aTTScpvov, {killed,) is the reduplicated, and at the same time syncopated aor. 
(§ 110, 4.) of «I>ENQ (whence (povog). 

The part, of this aor. has the accent, contrary to analogy, on the first 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 279 

syllable, 7rs(pv(jjv.^^ Pass. 2^^}'/- Tt'f.<paiiai,ftit. TTt<pri<Joiiai: compare reivoj, 
rirafxai, § 101, 9. and about Trs^fjffofiai, § 99. Obs. 1. See also below $ii — . 

TT-nywiiL, [I fasten^) with later writers also ttijo-o-w, tdJttw, fut. 
TTTi^b), &c. (§ ] 12, 14.) aor. pass, lirdyriv, perf. 2. Treirr^ja, in- 
trans. I amfixedjast [^ 113, Obs. 3).— MED. 

7riinr\r]fm (I fill,) irijUTrXavat, follows 'iGrrifii in the pres. and 
imperf. ; fut. TrXr^aw, &c. perf. pass. TriirX^diim, aor. pass, 
kirXriaOrjVf from IIAAQ or ttAjj^w, of which the latter, how- 
ever, has only the intrans. signif. to be full, in the pres. 
tense. 

If in compounds ju immediately precedes the first tt, it is omitted in the 
reduplication, £/x7ri7r\a/xai, but replaced again, whenever the angment comes 
between, kvf.Tti}x\aaav. 

Poets for the sake of the metre employ both forms with or without the /x, 
contrary to this rule. — The form in dio {ttiixttX^v, kfXTrnrXav,) is un-Attic, 
except in the same instances as in '[(tttjixi. 

With respect to the ^assm-like aor. STrXrjfxrjVf opt. 7r\ei[xr]v,^- imper. ttXtjcto, 
&c. see § 110, 7- it was not unknown to the Attics. (Aristoph. iix7rXr][j,£vog, 
€fj.7rXeifjirjv.) 

The intrans. TrXyjOoj has also a poetical perf. TrkTrXrjQa in the same sense 
{I am full). 

TTijUTrpriiLLL, (J bur7i, trans.) iriiunrpdvai, follows "iGrnfiL in the pres, 

and imperf. ; the rest comes from flPAQ or TrprJ^w, (Hom.) 

ex. gr. lirpriaOnv, 

With respect to «/i7ri7rp»]jut, IvfrrifiTrpaixsv, it is the same as with 7r/'/i7r\j7/ii, 
and also with regard to the form in aw. 

Hesiod (9. 856.) has a remarkable abbreviation 'iirpeae for tTrprjcfi : the 
analogy ofsTrifXTTpafxev would lead us to expect an a. 

TTivo), (I drink,) from IlIO, fut. iriojuai, (§ 95. Obs. 18.) aor, 
eiTLov, TTLSLv, &c. imper. commonly ttIOl (§ 110, 6). — The 
rest comes from IIOQ, perf iriirwKa, perf. pass, iriirofxai, 
aor. pass. enoOriv. Vey'bal adj. iroriog, iroTog, 

The I in 7r(0/iat is usually long, (Athen. 10. p. 446.) but in 'imov, &c. short. 
— 1\\Qfut. TTiou/xai belongs to the later writei-s (§ 95. Obs. 16). 

The forms Trtaw, e-n-icra, have the causative signif. to give drink, to cause to 
drink. Their j9r<?s. tense is TrntiaKOi. 

7ri7rpd(TK(jj, Ion. 7rf7rpr](7Kw, {I sell,) fut. and aor. are wanting. 

The foi-ms in use are, rrsTrpctKa, TrtTrpaftai, i-rrpaQriv, Tr£7rpdaofj.ai, which 
fut. 3. is used instead of the un- Attic /z(i. 1. TrpaOrjaofxai, and even the perf . 
TTiTrpdaOat is frequently used in lieu of the aor. TrpaOrjvai. The lonians 
have all these tenses with rj, 

^' That TTscpvoJv is a real aor. is obviously evident from the context in the two 
passages, II. tt. 827. p- 539. 

^2 The reading TrX-jixrjv appears to rest on a false analogy. But even in lieu of 
£1 the diphthong at might have been expected, since the form TrL}nrXdvai pre- 
supposes a radical verb IIAAQ. Yet %p?), which comes from%paoj, (see below,) has 
likewise XP**'? ^^ the opt. 



280 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

The coramou language supplied the tenses which are wanting by cnrodu)- 
(Tofiai, dTTtdoiirjv : the old and Epic language had the fut. Trepdaio, a, whence 
the contractions 7rfpu>, Trtp^v, aor. kiriQaaa from Trtpaoj, which we have 
seen above in a cognate signif., and with d in its conjugation. This Trtpdaat 
afterwards gave the remaining forms through the metathesis, which has been 
stated above in § 110, 1 1, 2. and in the Note to Ksgdvvvjxi. 

TTiiTTOj, {I fall, 1, whence the imper. nXTrTs,) formed from IlETQ, 
(see § 112, 16.) fut. (in the Doric way,) Tricjovfim, (Ion.) 
neaeofxai, aor. e-ireaov, (§ 96, 9.) perf. TraVrwjca. 

Poetical abbreviations of the part. perf. axe Attic TreTrrojg (compare (St- 
(Sput-eg from j3sj3pioKa,) and TrsTTTecog. The latter points to the original form 
7rs7rrr]Ka, (from IIETQ, like dsdjJirjKa horn SkjKo,) whence came Tr'sTrTUJKa, 
by changing the vowel. See Buttm.L^^a'i^^ws, I. 63. p. 295. 

We also meet with the regular aor. of IIETQ, aor. 1. lirtoa, Eurip. Troad. 
291. Ah. 465. aor. 2. lizirov in the Doric dialect (Pind.). 

TTLTVEw, (I fall,) aor. eiriTvov (§ 96. Obs. 5). But Trtrvaw, Trtrvrj/zt, 
is the same with irETavvvfjiL. 

TT^dZw, (/ chase about, pass. / 7'ove, wander,) fut. TrXay^w, &c. 
(§92. Obs. 1). 

IIA — , see TTsXw. | IIAA — , TrXrjQo), see ireXaKo and 7rt/i7rXr/jui. 

TrXew, (/ navigate,) fut. irXevaofiai, TrXsurrovjuat, — eirXevaa, &c. 

pass. 7r£7rXff(7/xad, lirX^vcjOriv. Verbal adj. TT\sv(TTiog. 

The Ionic dialect has ttXojw, TrsTrXw/ca, &c.; whence the verbal adj. TrXwrog, 
and the Epic syncopated aor. IttXwv, wg, w, wjuer, Sec. part. TrXtic, see § 110, 
6. with Obs. 1, 4. 

ttXtJo-ctw, TrXrjrrw, [I strike, irXriyvviii is a more uncommon form,) 

in the aor. 2 pass, it retains the r], lirXriynv, except in 

those compounds which denote a striking with dismay, 

I^ETrXayi/v, Kamr\a'yr]v. 

The Attics do not use the act. of this verb in the sense of striking, but 
■KUTdaab), which they never employ in the pass. The perf. 2. TrsrrXrjya has 
mth later winters a, pass, signif. (§ 113. Obs. 4.) 

Homer has also the aor. 2. act. and med., but with the redupl. Tr'sTrXriyov, 
7re7rXj]y6fJiT}v. 
TTveu), {I hloic,)fiit. rrvevcoixai, Trvtvcrovfiai, — iTrvevaa, &c. aor. pass. iivvivaQT]v. 

The perf. pass. TrsTrvvfxai (§ 98. Obs. 4.) is merely poetical in a particular 
sense (to be spirited, icise) ; and according to the same analogy, the synco- 
pated aor. dfiTTvvTo, (Homer, for dvsTrwro, § 110, 7-) and cunrvvvOt], (for 
avnrvvQt), compai'e J^pyw, IdpvvQijv,) and the imper. dfnrvvi. 
iroOko), see § 95. 06s. 4. 

TTopCiv, (Hesych.) tiro^ov, {gave, supplied,) part, ttoqwv, a defec- 
tive aor. with poets. 

The same theme in the sense of supplying has produced, according to the 
principles of metathesis, (§ 110, 11.) the perf. pass. TrgTrpwrat, {it is decreed 
by fate,) paH. TreTrpcJusvog. 

Pind. Pytk. 2, 105. has an iyifn. TreTraptlv or Tmropdv in the sense of 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 281 

showing, ejckibiting, which ought rather to be derived from a diflferent radical 

form, and written TreTrapsiv. See Boeckh. 
no — , see TTivu) : — TrkirocxBe, see Tra^xw. 
nPA — , 7rpr]9o), see TrnrpdcrKO) and 7rifj.7rpr]fj,i. 

TTpiaaOai, {to buy,) a defective verb, of which the forms are used 
only as aor. of uivuaQai, viz. sirpidfirjv, conj, irpiwiuai, opt. 
irpiaijULr^v, imper. irpiaao, Trpiw, infin. irpiaadai, part, irpi- 
djuevoQ. 

The pres. indie. Trpiajxai, stated in Dictionaries, is not met with any where : 
iTrpidjJirjv must therefore be considered as a defective aor. 2. med. after the 
analogy of ETTTdfxrjv (see irkToiiaC). 

nPO — , see Tvopiiv. 

nTA — , nTO — , see Trsravvvni, Trsro/zai, Trrrjffauj, and 7ri7rra». 

7rTr}(Taci), {I crouch,) is regular^ but has with poets some forms 
as if from riTAQ, part. per/. Treirrriiog, and 3 pers. dual 
aor. 2. 7rri]Tr]v (§ 110, 6). 

Trwddvojiiai, {I learn by inquiry, hear,) from irtvOofxai (Poet.) 
fut. TT^vaofiai, aor, lirvdon^v, perf. ireirvaiLLai. Verbal adjec- 
tive, TrevGTiog, ttsvcttoq, 

P. 

paivw, (I sprinkle,) see about pdaaare and Ippd^arai, Obs. IV. 5. 

to § 103. 
piZisi and iplw, [I do,) fut. pi^uj, or (from EPra) f'pSw, &c. 

perf. eopya. 
piu), {I flow,) fut. pivGOfiai, aor. ipp^vaa. We find, however, in 

the same act. sense, only the aor, 2. pass. lppm]v with the 

fut. pvr]aoiuai, and a new perf. formed from this aor. 

£ppVl)Ka (§ 111, 2). 
"PE — , see tiireXv. 

p-nyvvjuL, (I rend, trans.) fut. p{]^ii), (§ 112, 14.) aor, pass. 

Ippdynv, perf. 2. 'ippwja, (§ 97. Obs. 2.) with the intrans. 

signif. I am rent. See § 113. Obs. 4. 
piyiw, (/ shudder,) perf. ippiya, (§ 97. Obs. 4.) identical with 

the^re^. tense. 

piyou), see § 105. Ohs. 6. 

piTTTLj and pLWTiu), {I th7'ow,) both forms are in use in the pres. 
and imperf : the rest of the tenses are derived from the 
first only, pi\pu), &c. long i, whence plTrrs, pl^ai, aor. pass. 
lppL(^y]v. — See about jOiVrao-Kov, Obs. II. 1. to § 103. 

poilaaKt, see Ohs. II. I. to § 103. 



282 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

PT — , see psu) : — pyo/^ai, see Ipww. 1 PQF — , see prjyvvfii, 

pwyvvfii, [I strengthen,) puyaw, &c. (§ 112, 14.) pe7'f. pass, tppu)- 
Hai, imper. tppMao, [farewell!) aor.pass. IppwcrQriv. 



o-aXTTi^w, {I sound a trumpet,) fut. daXiriy^w^ &c. (§ 92. Obs. 1.) 
(TaXTrhu) is a later form. 

aaou), see cw^w. 

adw, an old form for (jr}6(jj, {I sift,) whence we find (in Herod. 
1, 200.) (jwai. 

(j[5hvvfiiy {I extinguish^) o-jSeo-w, &c. tajdeafiai, iGJ^EaOiyv. — The 
perf. iafdrjKa, (with the rj,) and the aor. 2. tajSijy, pi £(T/3r?- 
juf V, infin. ajdrjvai, have the intrans. signif. to be extinguished, 
which else is expressed by the pass. o-jSlvvu^m. 

at'iu), avaaanaoKi, see Ohs. II. 1. to § 103. 

o-fvw, [I push on,) has most commonly the augment in the same 
way as the verbs beginning with q, (§ 83. Obs. 2.) and takes 
no a in the aor. 1. taa^va, kacjEvdinrjv, perf . pass, iaavjiai, (I 
7'ush forth, I strive, I require,) part. Iggvixevoq, [proparox., 
see § 111. Obs. 2.) plusq. eaavjurjv, which form is at the 
same time a syncopated aor. (§ 110, 7, with Obs. 4.) whence 
(TVTo, (TVfjiEvog, 2 pers. b(T(tvo, (for 'icrcyvcro, see Obs. III. 2. 
to § 103.) aor.pass. (of the same signif.) iaavQriv (Sopho- 
cles). — The forms with a single a [ex. gr. lavOrjv, l^ecrvdr},) 
are less frequent, and those without any augment [cr^va, 
(TVTO,) belong to the Ionic Epic dialect. — We also meet 
with a syncopated pres. pass. (§ 110, 5.) ex. gr. aevrai, 
(Soph. Trach. 645.) but more commonly with the change 
of the vowel into ov, cjovfxai^ [I hasten, run,) imper. aovao, 
aovadb), aovaOe [calls or exhortations, used in common life). 
— Hither belongs, lastly, that Laconic airicraova, [he is 
gone,) known from Xenoph. Hell. 1, 1, 23, which is ex- 
plained as aor. 2. pass, (for go-o-urj.) 

(TKB^dvvvfii, [I scatter,) fut. a-zcfSao-w, (tkeSw, &c. perf. pass. 
laKt^aaiiim (§ 112, 14). 

(TKeXXoj or GKeXih) [I dry, desiccate, pass. / am dried up). To 
this immediative sense of the pass, belong the act. forms 
aor. e(jK\r]v, cTKXrivai, o-jcXatijv, (§ 110, 6.) perf. i(jK\r]Ka, I 
have been dried up, and the fut. aKknaoixau 

The Homeric aKriXeie {aor. 1. tOKtiXa) points to tr/caXXw, (which has the 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 283 



widely different signif, to dig, scratch,^ whence come, through the metat 
2KAA, stated § 110, 11, the forms <TK\rjvai, crKXairjv, &c. 

a/jLau), (/ wipe,) (TfjLyjQ, &c. see § 105. Obs. 5. fut. (Tju-ncroj, &c. ; 
but the ao7\ pass, always is i<j}A{])(QY]v from the non- Attic 
pres. afjir]X(ii' Verbal adj. gh^ktoq. 

(Tovfiai, &c. see aevu). | (nreiv, (nrkaQai, see stvoj. 

(TTrivSio, {I pour out,) cnrehuj, i(jiTuaf.iai (§ 25. 4). — MED. 
2TA — , see "iaTr]}xi. \ crrrjKerE, see p. 207. J^ote. 

arepiw, and aT^piaKoj, {I deprive of,) the first is regular, fut, 
aTEpi](Tto : in the pass, the simple form aTigofiai in the sense 
of / am deprived of, robbed. 

Homer has it with e, (TTSps<rai, and poets have, instead of (TTtpr]6tig, an 
aor. 2. pass. aTtpelg. 
GTSVTai, aTSvvrai, arevTo, see § 110, 5. 

crroptvvv/xi, (jropvvjUL, and aTpdyvvvjii, (I spread as a bed,) give 
both crroptcrw, laropecra, and GTpwau), tarQijjcja., perf. pass. 
ecFTpLOfjiaL, aor. 1. pass. icTTo^iaOr^v. Verbal adj. arptoTog. 

There is an obvious metathesis (§ 1 10. 06s. 70 in the forms crrpwduj, 
uTpoyvvvixi. 

(jTvyiti), [I dread, hate,) is regular ; but has in Homer also the 
aor. 2. tarvyov, (§ 96. Obs. 5.) and in a causative sense to 
cause to be dreaded, the aor. 1. iarv^a, which later poets, 
however, employ again in the first sense. 

a-)(Civ^ icxov, &c. see f'xw. 

(TwZit), {I save,) has in the old writers in the perf. pass, beside 
(T£o-(t»o-/.mt, also Gi<yb)p.m, and in the aor. 1. pass, always 
ecTwOriv from the primitive form aaou), fo-awOTjy. — MED. 

The Epics have from caoai, 1.) the regular formation aatbcTOJ^iffdcoaa, &c. 
2.) 2}7'es. and imperf. contr. (craow, aaotiQ,) cilno, (twsiq, &c., whence came the 
usual form o-w^w, with Epics also (tou), 3.) the 3 pers. imperf. {iadov,) and 
the imper. {(jdov,) again contracted, would be ecro), crw, but the Epics lengthen 
these forms again not with o, as is usual, but with a, (exactly as in 
vauTacocra, see § 105. Obs. 10.) thus craw (for eVw^e and cruJ^e). 

T. 

TAP—, see TAQ. | raXdu), see TAAO. 

Tavvoj, I stretch, bend as a bow. The pass, takes a : the v is short in the conju- 
gation ; the fat. is again Tavvoj, Od. (p. 174. See § 95. Obs. 12. The pass. 
with the Epics is likewise Tdvvfxai. 

rapdaau), ttm, (J disturb,) has a contracted collateral form : 
1.) with the Attics the pres. tense Opdrrio, where the r 
becomes a 9, and the vowel is lengthened ; hence the part. 



284 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

neut. TO OpciTTov : 2.) with the Epics the per/., but with an 
intrans. signif. Terprtxa, {I am full of trouble, in a commo- 
tion,) where the Ionic rj suppUes the place of a ". — MED. 

Tatpeiv and racpijvai, see Qdirro} and 0A$ — . 

TA — , the seeming radical form of thvoj, TsraKa, «&c. (§ 101.) To a similar root in 
the sense of seizing, taking, belongs the imper. rrj, (take,) to which is related 
(from TArQ)the Epic part. aor. 2. redupl. Terayujv {seizing). See Buttm. 
Lexilogus, I. 41. p. 162. 

TEK — , see rt/crw. ^ 

Tsfxvwy [I cuty) fut. re/uLu), aor. irs/uLov, (§ 112, 6.) perf T£Tfir}Ka, 
pass. rkfxriiiaL, aor. 1. hiJ.{]Or}v (§ 110, 11). See about the 
conj. perf. pass. § 98. Obs. 9. 

The aor. eTufJiov is more uncommon. The lonians say also rdfivcj in the 
pres. ; and Homer has the radical form tsixuk^II. v. 707. rljufi, Buttm. Com- 
plete Gr. Gr. § 92. 06s. 13). — There is an Epic form rjuijyw, aor. tr/xjj^a, 
and tTfiayov, pass. kr}xdyr]v. 
TtpTTO), (7 delight,) has in its pass, form rkpTrofiai, {I am delighted.) three different 
aor. in the Epic language, krsp^Orjv or Irdp^Oriv, — IrdpTrijv, whence with a 
transposition (§ 96. Obs. 7.) the conj. TpaTrtio) for rpaTTut, — and aor. med. 
(srapTTOjLirjv,) T6TapTr6fxr}v, conj. rapTrwixtOa. 
Tkpaojxai, {I get dry, dry wp, intrans.) injin. aor. 2. pass. Tiparivai and TBparjfiEvai. — 

Tspcraivo), I dry, ti'ans. ST'sp(Tr]va, &c. is regular. 
rerixov, eTSTfiov, {I met by chance,) a defective aor. 
TSToprjffbJ, see ropew. | rsTpaivM, see riTpdio. 

Ttvx(o. Two kindred verbs must carefully be distinguished, viz. : 

1.) Ttvx^, {I make, fabricate,) a poetical regular verb, rew^w, irtv^a, 

rsTvyfxai, iTv^Qriv, tvktoq or tsvktoq. 
2.) Tvyx'^'^^i {I happen to, hit the mark,) fut. TsvKojxai, aor. eTvxov, (Epic 
£r?;xJ7(Ta,) perf. tstvx'Hi^'^ (§ 112, 13, and 111, 3). The signif. of 
Tvyxdvh) arose from that of the pass, of r£w%w, whence the Epics 
have the pass, forms rsrvynai, srvx^'H'^i which nearly agree with 
Tvyxdvo), trvxov : and the perf . rerfw^a, of which the part, has in 
Homer the pass, signif. of r«ii%£ir, {Od. fi. 423. see § 113. Obs. 4.) 
takes altogether the signif. of the pres. rvyxdvu, in Herod. (3, 14,) 
and in the koivoL 
The perf. rsrvynai has also the diphthong fv, whence in Homer 3 pi. 
TtTivxarai, and the fut. 3 merely rerev^ofiai. 

To rguxw belongs, with the Ionic change of the aspirata, (§ 16. Obs. I. e.) 
the aor. 2. rtTvicelv, TtrvKioBai {to get ready, prepare). — See especially 
Toaaai for tvx^^v- 
TIE — , TtTiriiiai {I am sad). The part, is renrjusvog and in the act. form TSTirjojg 

(§ 97. Obs. 7). 
TiKTU), {I bring forth,) from TEKQ, fut. reSw, commonly ri^ofxai, 
aor. ir^KOVj (poetically trejco/xrjv,) perf. riroKa. 

^^ This long vowel is produced by a metathesis like that mentioned § 110. 06s. 'J. 
ill which the first a passes over and coalesces with the second, to form a long syl- 
lable, exactly as in [xaXaKog, — /3Xd?, jSXdKog. The change of r into 6 is effected 
by the aspiration wliich so readily combines with the p : yet it is an anomaly, since 
it does not take place in other instances. (See the J}^ote to p. 33.) — From this verb 
is derived the adj. rpdxvg, Ion. rprjxvg, {rough, rugged,) and not the verb from the 
adj. See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 52. p. 210. 



I 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 285' 

We also meet with rlrcyjuae and Irsx^^^ ^^ t^^^ later writers. See about 
the fut. T£KeX(T9ai, § 95. Obs. 16. 
Tivo), see Tio). 

TiTpdw, (I perforate, bore,) from TPAO, rprjcrw, &c. 

The Attics, however, make more use of the collateral form rsTpaiviOf 
eTSTprjva. The per/, always is, from the radical form, TsrprjKa, TSTpr][xai. 

TLTpU)(TK(jJ, {I wound,) TpUXTOJ, &c. (§ 112, 10, 16.) 

The simple rpwu) in the more general sense of hurting, damaging, is in 

Homer. Both are connected with Toptlv through the metathesis TOP, TPO, 

see § 110, 11. 

t'ko, (/ honour,) is in this sense merely poet, and regular, ^ar^. per/, pass. reTifisvoQ. 

In the sense of expiating, it is merely Epic in the pres. and imperf., but 

lends in prose the rest of its tenses to the following form : 

Tivu), {I expiate^ fut. riffu), per/. rtriKa, per/, pass. TiTiajxai, aor. 1. pass. 

8ricr9r]v. The Med. TivoiJiai {riaopai, iTi<ydjxr]V, cnrsTicdpTjv,) has the 

signif. to punish, avenge. The Ionic pi^es. is tIvvvjxi, rivvviiai (§ 112, 14). 

The I in rivw is with the Epics long, with the Attics short, § 1 J 2. Obs. 8.^^ 

Attic poets also shorten the first syllable of Tivvp.1. See Buttm. Complete 

Gr. Gr. § 112. Obs. 19. 

rXrivaL, {to endure, bear,) irXriv, rXrivai, r\air\v, rXriOi, (§ 110, 6.) 
fut. rXridOiijLai, perf. rtrXrjKa. 

From this perf . ai-e again made, according to § 110, 10, the forms tstXu- 
fiev, &c. TtrXdvai, opt. rerXairjv, imper. rhrXaQi, and the Ionic part. 
TsrXrjujQ, but all of them only in poets and in the pres. tense. — There is an 
Epic collateral form aor. 1. IrdXaca : the pres. tense was supplied by 
dvsxopai or vTropsvoj. 
TM — , see Tspvco and Tsrpo}. | rp-rj-yo}, see rspvo). 

Top'soj, (7 pierce,) 'iropov, (§ 96. 06s. 5.) a defective aor., compare rtrpwcKw. — In 
the kindred sense of penetrating, having a clear loud sound, we meet with the 
fut. T£Topri(T(o, and the pres. Toptvo) in Aristoph. 
Toaaai, an aor. the same with rvxttv, of which Find. Pyth. 3, 48. 4, 43. 10, 52, 

has the part. Toaaag, and the compounds gTreroccrf, kiriToaaaQ. 
ToaTTsiu), see TspTVoj. 
TpeTToj, [I turn ^ see about rsTpo(pa and Tsrpa(pa, § 97. p. 149. 

Tpi(j)(t), {I nourish,) fut. Opiiptj, (§ 1^,2.) perf. rirpo^a, perf. pass, 
ridpaixfiai, Te9pd(p0ai, {reTpdcpOat is incorrect,) aor. pass. 
lTpd(f)r]v, more rarely WpicpOriv. Verbal adj. Ope-n-Tog. — 
MED. 

In the old language rpscpcj had also the immediative (§ 113, 2.) signif. to 
grow thick, strong, tall, and the pass, has the same meaning ; hence the aor. 2. 
act. and the aor. 2. pass, are used in Homer indifferently one for the other, 
ex. gr. trpatps, the same with erpdcl)!] and rpacpeptv, {rpa^tlv,) the same with 
the usual Tpacpiivai, see Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. : Tsrpo(pa has both signif. 
(see the Note to § 97- p. 149.) 

5* The statement that the i in the conjugation of riaio is short in irKra from 
Tivu, proceeds from ignorance of the comic metre in Aristoph. Eccl. 45. Vesp. 1424. 
where the i makes an anapaest. 



286 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

r(0£%w, (/ run,) less commonly takes its tenses from itself : Ops^ofxai, eBps^a, 
(§18,2.) more genei-ally fi'om APEMQ, ao)'. 'idpafiov, fut. dpaixovnai, per/. 
deSpdjxrjKa, (see § 111, 3.) Epic ^edpo/j-a. 

TPY<I> — , see QpinrToj. 

Tpvxd^} (^ '^ub to pieces, consume,) forms its tenses from the less 

common rpvxoii}, iTpv^yycra, r^TQv\(i)fiivoQ, &c. 
TQioyu), {I eat,) fut. rpM^ojum, aor. hpayov (from TPHFQ). 

ruy%ava;, TBTVKelv, see tsv^^m. 

TVTTTCt), {I strike,) has with the Attics commonly rvirT-nad), tetv- 
TrrrijULai, ruTrrrjTfoc? aor. pass, krvirriv. — MED. 

Tv(j)(i), (/ 7'aise a smoke, set on fire,) fut. Ov^pw, &c. (§ 18^ 2.) 
aor. pass. lTv(l>r}v. 

Y. 

vTria')(vioixai, see 6%a>. 

^. 

$Ar — , see scOio). 

^aivcj, (intrans. / shine, trans. I show,) aor. e(pr}va, perf. 1. TrscpayKa, pass, (paivoixai 
with aor. 1. s(pdv9r]v, I am shown. — MED. The pass, (pa'ivofiai also signifies 
/ shine, apijear, aor. 2. Itpdvrjv, fut. (pavovfjiai, and with perf. 2. Trscpriva (see 
§ 113. 06s. 3). The Homeric iterative (pdviCKt. {shone, a2')peared) is rather 
anomalously formed from the pass, s^dvrjv. Homer has also (pdavOsv for 
k^dv9r](jav, in the sense of shining: compare Kpaivoj. 

$A — , (pd<TK(t}, see (prjfxl, (§ 109, 1.) (paivcj and $ENQ. Homer's 7rs<pr](Joixai be- 
longs sometimes to cpaivu) and sometimes to $ENQ, / shall shine or be killed. 

$ENQ, see 7rs(pvov. 

<j)ipw, [I ca7Ty, bear,) has its tenses from quite different roots, 
fut. o'/crw, and an aoristic imper. otae, about which see 
§ 96, 9 — further aor. 1. rivsyKa, aor. 2. riveyKov : from the 
former are used especially the indie, and those terminations 
of the imper. which have the a, and from the latter chiefly 
the infin. ^nd part. perf. evrfvoxa, (compare § 97. Obs. 1,2.) 
perf. pass. Ivriv^yixai, aor. pass. r\vixdy]Vi fut. pass. Iv^xdiicro- 
juat or ol<jdr]aojiaL. Verbal adj. olariog, olarog (poetically 
0£proc).— MED. 

The lonians have aor. ijvsLKa, kvHKai, pass. T^vHx^rjv. The theme EvtiKO) 
occurs as apres. in Hesiod, A. 440 {(JvvtvsiKeTat). 'Ei>eyKeiv is erroneously 
considered as a compound with tv : it is like qyayov, oKakKiiv, &c. (§ 85. 
Obs. 2.) a redupl. of EEKQ, of which again ENEKQ, ENEIKQ, are length- 
enings (like AAKQ, AAEKQ), — See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 63, 23. Homer 
has in the imp)er. pjl. (p'spn. — See about <popihj, § 112, 9, and about (poprjvai, 
§ 105. Obs. 16. There are a few other rare forms derived from oicw, viz. 
infin. aor. 1. dvi^aai and the verbal adj. avwiaroQ in Herod. (1, 157. 6, QQ.) 
where the w is not grammatically correct ; and the perf. Trpoolarai in 
Lucian Paras. 2., of which the diphthong oi, unchanged by the augment, 
rests on § 84. Obs. 2. 0p£w, see particularly below. 



ANOxMALOUS VERBS. 287 

^eu-yw, [I flee, escape,) fut. (p^\)^of.LaL and (^zv^ovfxai, aor. I'^uyov, 
perf. TTEfpevya. Verbal adj. (pevKr^og, (()evKTog {(^vktoq, Horn.). 

Homer has also the paH. per/, pass. infpvyixkvoQ in an act. sense, escaped; 
and a, part. per/. TTs^vKortg, (compare cpv^a, flight,) fugitives. 

(pOavu), (I do previously to another, anticipate.) see about the 
quantity of the a, § 112. Obs. 8. aor, 1. s(j)9aaa and aor. 2. 
£</)0ijv, (1)9m, (fiOrivai, (j)9ag, {med. Epic (f)9aiuevog,) § 110, 6. 
fut. (j)9r](T0iJ.ai, peif. i(j)9aKa. 

There is 11. k. 346. -nrapaipOaujffi, an nncommon form of the opt. for -ait]. 
Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. T. 537- iVo?<?. 

(f)9£ipco, I spoil, trans, is regular ; but the perf. 2. t(p9opa, ^l- 
i(^9oQa, has, with the lonians and the later writers, the sig- 
nif. I am spoiled, Attic have spoiled, the same with a(l)9apKa. 

Homer has the fut. (pQspcru : fit. 2. med. CLacpOapkofxai, intrans. with the 
lonians. 
^diio, in this form is merely an Homeric verb with transitive and inti'ans. signif. to 
iraste, destroy, {II. cr. 466.) perish {Od. /3. 368). The other forms are more 
in use, yet, on the whole, more poetical. ^Biatjj and t(p6icra are merely trans- 
itive. But the derivative 

Pres. tense 00tVw 
is commonly intrans., and takes its tenses from the middle voice of (pO'ioj, viz., 
fit. <p9i(yo[xai, perf i^Oipiai, pliisq. s(p9iiJir)v, which latter form is at the same 
time a syncopated aor. (§ 110, 7-) and has therefore its own moods: opt. 
(peifirjv, To, Xto, {Od. k. 51. X. 330. See the B'ote to § 107- Obs. III. 6.) infin. 
(pOicrOai, part. (pQiufvoQ, conj. (pOiojfxai, shortened (pQ'ionai, ^OisTai. 

The t in both (pBiaij), &c. and the pres. (pOivoj, (§ 112. Obs. 8.) is always long 
with the lonians, and short with the Attics : icpOifjiai, &.c. is constantly short. 

(piXso) {I love). Instead of the regular aor. of this verb, Homer 

has alsOj with a long i, the medial forms IfiXaro, imper. 

(plXaL, [deponens of the simple form $IAO,) in which the 

I is long, in consequence of the nature of the aor. See 

§ 101, 4. 
(^pa^w, (/ say, point out,) has in the old poets an aor. 7r£(^paSov, 

tTricppadov, infin. Tre^joaS^fiv, and a perf. pass. TTE^paS/xat. 
(ppeoj, used only in compounds, Ucppuv, e^Kjcppsiv, ^^(ppetv, {to let 

in, out, through,) (f)p{](T(i), Sec. imper. ao-^psc (§110,6). — MED. 
(I>pi(y<juj, (ppiTTM, {I shudder,) fut. ^pi^w, &c. perf. 7re(pplKa, from 

$PIK12, (whence also the subst. cfyp'iKri, &c.) see § 92, 8, 2. 

<I>YZ — , see (pevyoj. 

(pvpu), (I mix, knead,) fut. old (pvpauj, ecl)vp(Ta, commonly (pvpaau), 
&c. Ion. (^tvpiiaw, perf . pass. iriclivpixaL and ir^cpvpapiai. 

(})V(i), {I produce,) (pvmo, '^(pvcra. But the perf. 7ri(pvKa, and the 
aor. 2. £^uv, (l)vvai, conj. (pvuj, part, (pvg, (§ 110, 6.) have a 



288 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

pass, or intrans. signif. to be produced, to arise, for which 
there is in the pres. and/w^. (jivofiai, (jtvao/j^ai. 

Un- Attic writers use instead of <pvvai, <pvQ, &c. an aor. pass, ^vfivai, <pvslg, 
&c. — See about the Homeric forms ire^vaai, 7rt(pv(jjg, § 97. Obs. 7. and about 
the opt. (pvT}v, § 110. p. 225. 

X. 

XaZ(^, commonly x^Zofxai, [I give way,) is regular, but has in 
Homer an aor. 2. with the redupl. and the change of ^ into 
fc, Kf:Ka^i(jdai, The act, K^Ka^uv, (/ceicaSwy,) with a particular 
fut. KeKadrjrTU), has in Homer a peculiar transitive signif. to 
deprive of, bereave. — (See jce/ca^i^o-o^ai in kyj^o), and sxa^ov 
in >^avSavw.) 

)(aiv(t)) see ')(d(TK(i). 

Xaipw, {I rejoice,) fut. xaiQr]aii)y aor. (from the pass.) I^aprjv, and 
from this again Q.perf. with a more intensive signif. of the 
pres. Kexapr^KU or K^xAprifiai (§ 111^ 3). 

Poets have also of the regular formation /c£%ap/xai, aor. 1. med. kxri^a(xr}v, 
and aor. 2. with the redupl. Kfxapo/xTjr, The fut. x^cp^'^ofiai belongs to the 
later writers ; Homer has Ksxaprjau) and -ojxai. 

Xav^avoj, {I contain, hold,) aor. ex^^^ov, (§ 112, 13.) perf. k:£x«i^^«j 
(the same with the pres.) fut. x^'^^^ofiai, [Od. g. 17.) as if 
from XENA12 (compare GTrivluj cnraiau), and TrewovOa 
TrdcTOjULai). 

XcKTKw, [I gape wide, yawn,) forms of the pres. tense x^'^^^y 
which is not used by ancient writers, the aor. e'xavov, fut. 
Xavovfiai, perf. kbxvvcI} I ^^ open, yawning. 

X^^oy,fut. xeo-oujuat, aor. 'ix^aa and ex^aov, perf. Ksxoda (§ 97, 4. a. c). 
Xi'i(^oiiat, see [j^ov^aj/w. 

Xiii), {I pour,) fut. again x^^-> X^^^' X^h f'^t' inf^^d. x^oiJ,ai, (see 
Buttm. Compl. Gr. Gr., and above § 95. Obs. 8.) aor. 1. 
e'x^aj (§ 96. 0^5. 1.) ex^ag, 1ex^^{v), infin. x^<^h imper. x^^v, 
X^aTM, &c. joer/". fc^xu/ca, joer/. jo<255. KsxyfJ-ai^ aor. pass. 
ExvOriv (§ 98. 0/^5. 4).— MED. 

The forms x^^^^> ^X^^'^'^^ ^^^ unusual, though they were the primitive 
ones, as appears from the suhst. x^^l^^t ^^^ the forms £xv9r]v, tx^va, &c. — 
See § 95. Obs. 12. Nott. 

The Epics have the aor. 6%fi;a, (of which the conj. xaww becomes a fut., 
Od. [3. 222. see § 139. Obs. 1. I. 4.) syncopated aor. pass. £%v/xj7v, &c. (§ 110, 7). 

XpaiGfxdv, {to aid, help,) txpaiajULov, a defective aor., whence 

came again xp«'o-jur](7Wj ixQ^'^^M^^ (§ ^^^y ^)' 

X/oaw. There are of this verb five different formations with dif- 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 289 

ferent signif. ; all of them with the contraction commonly 
rj, Ionic (contrary to analogy) «. 

1.) xpaw, {I deliver oracles,) is regular, j^;p?7(Tw, &c. pass. KsxpV^^H''^^} ^XP'^' 
<yQr]v. — See the contraction in jj in Soph. El. 35. (Ed. C. 87- 

2.) KixprjfjLi, (J lend,) follows 'icTTrjjXi, XPV<^<^} ^XP'H'^'^) «^c. MED. 
Kixpcifiai, (/ horroic,) xRV^^^nai. 

3.) xpao/zai, (/ am in need of, emjjloy,) XPV (2 sing.), xprjrat, xp^ffOat, 
&c. : the rest is regular, aor. expr](jdijii]v, peif. Kkxp^fJ^ai^^. Verbal adj. 
Xpj]crTeov, xp^T^Tog. 

See § 105. 06s. 8. and 15, about the Ionic forms of the j^res. and imperf. 
being sometimes with a, and sometimes with £. 

4.) xp?), {it is necessary, Lat. oportet,) is impersonal, and conforms partly 
to the vei'bs in [xi, infin. %p77t'ai, op)t. xpst??, conj. XPV' P'^^'^- ij^) XP'^^^^^\ 
imperf. kxPV^^^ oi' XP^^> (never 'dxpr],) fut. %pj7(7£t. 

5.) cLTToxpr}, {it is sufficient,) un-Attic clttoxp^, pi- a7roxP'^<^'-i', infin. 
a—oxpyv, part. airoxP^V} ^<ya, Sjv, imperf. aivkxpri, fut. dTroxpJjcfi, &c. 

XOb)vvvpiL, {I dye, color,) fut, xpdxTtjj, &c. (§ 112, 14.) perf, pass, 

X<l}vvvfiL, {I heap up earth, make a bank or mole, § 112, 14.) is 
regular in the old writers : x^^^ infin. xovv, ^wo-w, &c. 
perf.pass. Kix^o(jfxai. 

This terh must not be mistaken for the Epic xwo/iai, (7 am angry,) 
iXdicrdiiriv. 

^. 

i//dw, see § 1 05. 06s. 5. 

o/zuxw — i->\>vy7]v, see § 100. O65. 8. 

Q. 

wdkw, (/ push,) has the syllabic augment according to § 84. 
Obs. 5. [Ididovv,) fut. w9r]<Tw, and (from O0O) loaw — 
I'oicra, w(Tai, iiiXTfjiai, &c. 

wviofjiai, {I buy,) has likewise the syllabic augm, ewvovfir^v, &c. 
But instead of employing its own aor. {l(i)vrjaafj.i]v, ujvY}<jd~ 
fxr]v,) Attic writers used the forms lirpiaiinv, TrptaaOai, &c. 
which see above. 

5= This jyerf. is used by the Epics in the sense of I want. 

5^ See about this ^;art. § 57, 3. As this impersonal verb evidently comes from 
XP^(^, this^^a?-^. is explained by the Ionic conversion of ao into fw, (§ 27- 06s. 10.) 
but the accentuation must be noticed as very anomalous ; and since the lonians 
changed in general the verbs in aw into eco, this accounts for the e in xpfi'j? 
(compare Tciji-Xrjfxi), 

'"'^ This anomalous accentuation, instead of 'ix9^^i (§ ^ 2, 2. a. and 06s. 1. to § 103.) 
rests on ancient custom. 

U 



390 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

§ 115. — Of the Particles, 

1. The particles are called in Latin inflexibles, because they 
admit neither declension nor conjugation. Whatever regards 
their formation and derivation belongs to the chapter On the 
Formation of Words. There are, however, some particulars 
intimately connected with the inflection of other parts of speech, 
or pointing- at some reciprocal bearings among the particles 
themselves, (as comparison and correlativeness,) or little varia- 
tions occasioned by construction and euphony, which are better 
treated separately, being in some degree analogous to what is 
called inflection in general. They are therefore brought here 
under a distinct point of view. 

2. We first separate from the particles in general the prepo- 
sitions, viz., the following eighteen : — 

a/i^t, ava, avri, cnro, diet, elg, fv, e^, £7ri, Kara, jul^to,, irapa, 

TTCpl, TTjOO, TTQOg, CTUV, UTTfjO, VTTO, 

which have always been especially considered as the preposi- 
tions of the Greek language, and which we shall denominate 
the old prep. They alone form compound verbs in a simple and 
regular manner, which is not the case with other particles, 
which are also prep., as avtv, evcica, lyyvg, wq, [at,) &c. What- 
ever concerns these old prep, with regard to form, will be stated 
along with the other particles ; but their combination wdth the 
casus is elucidated in the Syntax, § 147. 

3. The most general adverbial form in Greek is the termi- 
nation b)Q, which may be considered as a part of the inflection of 
adjectives ; for it occurs only in adj. and participles, and there 
are very few adj. from which this form could not be derived. It 
is perfectly tantamount to the termination of the cases, and we 
need only change the final oq of either nomin. or gen. into wc? 
observing at the same time that, whenever the end-syllable og 
of the nomin. has the accent, the termination wg of the adv. 
retains the accent, which becomes a circumflex. For instance, 

^iXog (f)LXii)g, (jo(j)og (TO(l>u)g, 

croj^pwv, {(Jw(ppovog,) (J(x)(j)p6v(x)g, ^apisig, evTog, \apiivT(jt)g, 
EvOvg, iog, evBiwg, part. XvcnreXtJv, {serviceable,) ovvTog, 

XvCTLTEXovVTWg, 

a\r]9rig, iog, contr. ovg, aXrjOetjg, contr. aXriOwg. 

Obs. 1. All adv. derived from adj. in rjg, eog, should properly have a circumflex on 
the syllable oig as being a contraction of kwg into ujg. Some, however, are paroxytona, 



PARTICLES. 291 

and formed from the nomin., which has the same accent without any contraction, 
ex. gr. svf]9i]g, 6vr]9(ug, compare § 121, 9, I. and above § 49. Obs. 4. Adverbs made 
of adj. in -voog -vovg have the accent after the same analogy, as the adj. in their 
declension (§ 36, 06s.) ; thus from evvovg — ivvoiog ivviag, but agreeably to the fol- 
lowing Obs. better svvo'iKwg. 

Obs. 2. Adj^ of one termination, which, as it were, waver between subst. and adj., 
take first the usual termination of adj. to form the adv. in ojg, ex. gr. voiiadiKwg, 
i3XaKiKu>g. Compare § 63. Obs. 3. and the Note to § 66. 

4. Particular cases and forms of nouns frequently supply, by 
virtue of a power to be explained in the Syntax, and by an 
ellipsis, the place of particles, and when such a form occurs 
rather frequently, it passes altogether for an adv. ; ex. gr. the 
dat. 

KOfjLiSy, properly with care, hence very much ; 
(TTTovSij, — with diligence, difficulty, hence 
hardly, scarcely, 
beside a number of adj. feminine, where originally the dat. oSto 
from T7 oSbg, the ivay or manner, w^as understood ; ex. gr. 

ireZy, on foot, kolv^ jointly, Idla, privatim, privately, 
SrjiJLOdiq, pvbl.ic:e, publicly ; and the like. Compare 
in the following §, Obs. 7. aXXy, and the like, 
—the Accus. 

apxnv and rrjv apx^v, properly, in the beginning, outset, 

hence wholly, 
TrpolKa, GRATIS, ivifhout compensation, (from TrpolJ, a gift,) 
juaKpav, {6^0 V,) far, far off. 
See also Obs, 3. — The neuter of an adj. is also an adverbial 
accus,, when in the sing, or pi. it supplies the place of an adverb. 
But excepting the compar. and superl., of which we shall treat 
presently, this is chiefly peculiar to poets, (see § 128. Obs. 4.) 
and there are also a few adj., which are used adverbially in the 
neut. gender in prose ; such are, for instance, Taxv^ quickly, 
fiiKpoV} or fiiKpa, little. 

Obs. 3. There are many particles which originated in this manner, whose radical 
noun is not in use, or used ouly by poets. Datives of this kind are written without 
the I subscript ; ex. gr. eiKrj, in vain, ^i%^, doubly, compare the following §. Of this 
kind are also the gen. e^rjg, in order, dyxov, near, ofiov, together {adj. ojxbg with the 
Epics) ; the neuters TrXrjaiov, near, {adj. 7rXr}(jiog with poets,) (Jrjfifpov, to-day, a'vpiov, 
to-morrow ; and especially several in a, like fxaXa, Kccpra, greatly, ^I'xa, separately, 
ro-xa, quickly, perhaps ; and many more. 

Obs. 4. If beside the neuters ev6v and lOv, we also meet with evOvg and iOvg as 
adverbs, (see § 117, 1.) it is only accidentally that the latter form is identical with 
the nomin. masc. of the adj., and in these words as well as in eyyug the g is as much 
a part of the adverbial form, as it is in d/x^ig from dfi(pi, fiexptg for {isxpi, aTpsfiag 
for cLTpsna. 

V 2 



29.2 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

06s. 5. Some are cases of nouns preceded by a prep. ; ex. gr. 

7rapa\pri}ia, immediately, on the spot, (properly at the thing itself,) 

KaQa and KaOdirep, (for KaO' a, KaO' uTrep,) as, 

did, {di 0,) wherefore ; but diori, {di o, n,) because, comes from Sia tovto, on — 

Trpovpyov, (for 7rp6 epyov,) literally for the benefit of the thing, (see § 147. ^po,) 
that is, for the purpose, 
and among these too there are some, of which the noun is not in use by itself, 
ex. gr. i^ai(pvr]Q, suddenly. Slight differences are to be observed in the spelling and 
accentuation of some compound expressions of this kind ; ex. gr. s/ctto^wv, out of the 
way, aside, (for ek tto^wv,) sfXTroSujv, in the way, a hindrance, (this is at the same time 
contrary to syntax, instead of kv ttocfiv,) 67ricr;!^fpw, (for — <^, from a noun, cxtpof,) 
in order, successively. 

5. With respect to the degrees of comparison, it is almost 
generally the case^ that 

the neut. sing, of the compar.., and 

the neut. pi. of the superl, 
serve at the same time as degrees of comparison for the adv. ; 
ex. gr. aocpwrepov ttoluq, thou doest more wisely, aldxiGTa ^leteXe- 
(7SV, he lived most shamefully. The degrees of comparison of the 
adv. are very seldom formed by annexing wq to the degree of 
comparison of the adj., and when it is done, it is to heighten the 
expression ; ex. gr. KaWiovwq is not merely more beautifully, but 
in a much more beautiful way ; hence jusyaXwc? magnificently, 
can have no other comparative than juHZovwg. 

6. There is an old adverbial termination w instead of wg, 
whence ovrojg and ovtm (§ 26, 4). This termination is peculiar 
to adverbs derived from adj., which are not in use, as acpvu), 
suddenly; oTricw, behind, backwards; and also to some adverbs 
formed from prep, as e^w, without, outwards, so-w or ao-w, dvuj, 
Kario, irpodh) and iroppu) \ These form their degrees of comparison 
in the same manner, avojTspii), avMrdru). And degrees of compari- 
son are similarly formed in some other particles ; ex. gr. airo, 
{far from, § 117. Obs. 3.) cnriDrdrw, {very far off, most remote,) 
Evdov, {within,) evdoTarii), EKag, {afar,) EKaaTipiv, ay)(^ov, {near,) 
ay^OTaru), juaKpav, {far off,) juaKporipit). 

7. The analogy of adj. in the formation of the degrees of com- 
parison is strictly followed in all particles, which are susceptible 
of degrees of comparison without being derived from any adj. in 
use ; ex.gr. lyy ug, {near,) lyyuTEpu) or lyyvTEpov, &c. — or 'iyyiov, 
Eyyiara, and they are liable to the same peculiarities and devia- 

^ These two particles and the intermediate Doric Tropcrw are properly of the same 
signif,, but in common use Trpocrw means before, in front, a,nd iroppu), (Tropaoj,) at a 
distance, far. 



PARTICLES. 393 

tions, which we have just noticed. (See Obs. 6.) — Compare in 
particular with the forms of § 67, 3. and § 68. 
ayx«5 {near,) aarjov, ay^iaTa, 
fiaXa, {greatly i) fxaXXov, fxaXidTa, 
and the following adverbial form of the compar. r\aau)v, (§ 68j 2.) 
viz. 

ri<jGov, 71TT0V, {lesSj) r\KLGTa {the least), 

Obs. 6. We must also notice the peculiarities of the degrees of comparison in 

TTEpa, (§ 117, 1-) Trepairepu) or Trepairepov, 

Tt\r]aiov, 7r\r](jiairepov and -eortpov, 

vvKTbjp, vvKTiairepov, 

Trpovpyov, TrpovpyiaiTspov, 
and from lOii {straight-forward) comes the Homeric IBvvraTa (instead of iOvrara, 
see § 114. p. 266. Note). — That some of these adverbs^ on taking the degrees of com- 
parison, become real adj., has already been noticed above, § 69, 2. and the Note. 

Obs. 7. Some verbal forms, by being in constant use in the popular language, 
were also converted into loarticles, and chiefly became interjections. We have already 
mentioned dev p. 213. Note: — (^(peXov, see the Anomalous 6(pei\(i} (and below § 150, 
among the particular locutions) : — Ttj, see the Anomalous TA : — idov, lo! see the 
Anomalous opdcj : — there is an old imper. of similar signif. rjvids, abbreviated ^vl 
and i]v : — ays, (psps, Wi, aypsi, signify all four, co7ne on, well ! — See also a^usXii, 
§ 150. All these imper. generally retain the sing, form, even when addressed to 
many individuals, except 'ire and aypuTS. 

Obs. 8. The adv. dtvpo, hither, is also employed as an imper. for come hither, in 
which case it has a pi., when addressed to many : dsvTS, which is explained as an 
abbreviation of devp' its, which occurs in full, ex. gr. in Aristoph. Eccl. 882. 

§ 116. — Particulce Correlativce, 

(Compare § 79. the Adjectives.) 

1. Some localities are expressed by means of annexed syl- 
lables : on the question 

whence? by 0£v, ex. gr. aXXoOsvjfrom another place, 
whither ? (ts, — aXXocjt, to another place, 
where? 6i, — aXXoOi, in another place. 

There are some differences in the vowel, which precede these 
terminations ; they are best learned by practical observation ; 
ex. gr. 'AOrivr^Oav, ovpavoOev, ay^oOi, in the fields, country; 
TTOTipwOi, on which of the two sides? Trorepwo-E, to which of the 
two sides? eTiodjOi, on the other side. Most of them keep the 
accent, where the radical word has it, or as near as possible. 
Only those in o9ev are generally paroxytona; ex.gr. ttovtoq 
TTOvroOev. 

Obs. I. But the derivatives of oIkoq, irag, dWog, evdov, Iktoq, as o'lKoOev, irdv- 
Toce, dXKo9L, eKToOev, follow the general rule. 



294 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

2. The question whither ? also admits the 

enclitic ^e 
to be annexed to the word^ and always close to the unaltered 
accus,, ex. gr. ovpavovde, into heaven; aXa^s, (from aXg,) into the 
sea ; epe(56(T^B, from to epe(5oQ, &c. 

06s. 2. In o'lKade, Jiomeward, to the house, and (pvyade, to flight, {(pvyi^,) the a comes 
from acciis. of metaplastic forms of the 3 decL, as those in § 56. Obs. 8., and in 

the d along with the a of the accus. pi. is become a K (according to § 22. 06s. 2). 
There are, however, a few words which take the ^ without being in the pl.j as 
OvpaKs, 'OXvixwia^e, xo-P-^Z^i epa^s. 

Obs. 3. Homer sometimes subjoins an adj. to the accus. in this form, ex. gr. 
Kocjvd' tvvaiofi'svrjv, {II. ^. 255.) and even repeats this local termination, as if it 
were the termination of a case in ov^s dofxovds, {to^his house,) from oq Sofiog. — But 
when the same poet appends this de to the gen. in aiSoade, it is because this gen. 
generally is elliptical : slg d'iSog, viz. dofxov (§ 132. 06s. 9). 

3. On the question where ? the termination cnv or gl is an- 
nexed to several names of cities, viz. i^o-f when there is a con- 
sonant preceding, and aai in case of a vowel, and retaining the 
accent of the radical word, ex, gr, 

^AOr]VY}<jL, nXaraLCKTLv, 'OXu/iTrmo-t 
(from 'A Orivai, IlXarami, 'OXvinria ^). — A few other words take 
the termination ol, 

'I(T0/xoT, Ilu^oT, M^yapoL, 
from ^laQpoQ, livBw, ra Miyapa. This termination always has 
the circumflex, except in oiKot, at home ^. 

4. The following three interrogatives refer to the three 
localities stated above, viz. : 

iroQ^v ; whence ? ttoT ; whither ? ttov ; where ? 
of which the first only agrees in form with the terminations 
stated at 1 (with poets also irodi and ttoo-e, see Obs. 4). But 

^ The termination »7<rt is vei'y generally spelled with the t subscript, and 'AOrjvyffi 
is considered as the Ionic dat. ; but the termination aai shows that this way of 
spelling is incorrect. Yet these terminations certainly come originally from datives 
pi., only that the form was altered for this special purpose in pronunciation, and 
applied also (like the termination a^s) to nouns in the sing. See the reverse of this 
in the following Note. — 'OXvinridai with a short a belongs to i) 'OXvfnridg. 

2 This termination is in TLvOw the real dat.; in the other words it is the some- 
what altered dat. of the 2 decl., which was also applied to names in the pil- 
(Msyapa,) and even to other words, as evravQal from evravOa (see Text 6). These 
forms must, however, not be mistaken for correlatives of the following ttoT, whither, 
though this very IvravOol sometimes actually answers the question whither ; ex. gr. 
in Aristoph. Lys. 568. Plut. 608 ; and we must recollect that in the common lan- 
guage the correlatives of the different questions in genei'al are easily confounded one 
with the other. See the Note to Soph. Philoct. 481. and about evravQal, Buttm. 
Compl. Gr. Gr. § 116. 06s. 28. 



PARTICLES. 



295 



these and some other interrogativeSy of which the most usual 
are 

77076 ; and TrriviKa ; when ? 

ttCjq ; how ? 

7rr\ ; in what direction ? in what manner ? 
stand with their immediate correlatives, {indefinitum, demonsira- 
tivum, relativum,) again in the same analogy, which we observed 
above § 79. with regard to the correlative adj. 



Interrog. 


Indef, 


Demonstr. 


Relat. 




all enclitics 




simpl. compos. 


77or£; 


770r£, 


Tore, 


OT^, OTTOTE, 


770U ; 


7701', 


— 


ov, — 0770V5 


77oT; 


7701, 


— 


oT, 0770f, 


TToOev ; 


TTodlv, 


ToOav, 


oOev, — oTToOav, 


7ru)g; 


770)^? 


ru)g, 


(hg, 077WC, 


Trn; 


7777, 


rrj, 


y, — 077)7/ 


TTYiviKa ; 





Tr}viKa, 


■nVlKa, OTTYiVlKa. 



Their signif. are supplied by the analogy of § 79 ; for instance, 
77or£, once, TToOtv, from any place lohatever, &c. — And in the 
same way as the artic. postpos. oc? independently of ogtlq, is also 
strengthened by77£p (oo-77£p, &c.). Several relatives of this kind 
add 77£p for the like purpose : warrep, ywsp, ovTrsp. 

Obs. 4. Of the poetical forms we will only just mention (for ttov, &c.) 
TToOi, TToOi, ToQi, oQi and ottoQi. 
and (for ttoT and ottoi) — TToat, oTrods, which forms are analogous to their particular 
correlatives (Text 1). 

5. The demonstratives in this table are the primitive simple 
ones, like 6, 17, to, among the adjectives ; but tots^ then, at that 
time, is the only one in common use ; the others occur merely 
in some particular locutions, or in poetry. Sometimes we also 
meet with wg as a more uncommon demonstrative instead of 
Twg : it then takes the acute accent, to distinguish it from the 
relative tog. 

6. But there are some other danonstratives, which, instead 
of r, have a very different root, and particular meaning : 

Ikh, (poetically ekslOl,) there, IkhOev, thence, eKtXaE, thither, 
answering the interrog atives irov, iroOev, and 770T, 
(Ion. and poetical ; also kblOi, kelOsv, Knae :) 

dtvpo, hither, answering the interr. ttote ; 



2 See about the i subscript in these instances, 06s. 8. 



296 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

To which must be added the following two, 
£v9a, here, there, tvOev, thence, 
which are at the same time relatives synonymous with ov and 
oOsv, and commonly used in prose. 

7, Of the demonstrative adverbial forms, which we have men- 
tioned, there are five susceptible of being strengthened in the 
way stated above in § 79, 5. whence are derived the demon- 
stratives generally used in prose, in the following manner, 
(compare § 14. Obs. 3. with regard to their accentuation,) 



TTJVlKa, 


TYIVlKaCE, 


TYiviKavra. 


ivQa, 


IvOah,' 


IvOavra Ion., kvravOa Att. 


svOev, 


IvOh^e, 


IvStvTey Ion., IvrtvOev Att, 


-^^y 


T7jd£, 


TaVTYf. 




W^f, 


ovTijjg, or ovTOj. 



See about the two last series Obs. 7. 

8. Part of these demonstrative adverbial forms take moreover 

the I demonstrativum, (§ 80. Obs. 3.) 
for instance, 

ovTWGL from ovTwcnv, (see § 80. Obs. 3.) 

Sevpl from ^evpo, vvvl from vvv. 

However evravOa, in this respect, forms, besides evravOl, more 
commonly evTavOol, see the Note p. 294. 

9. The relative adverbial forms, (like the adj., § 80.) to gene- 
ralize their signif. more intensely, annex 

ovv and drjirore, 
for instance, oirovovv, wheresoever, wherever, oircoaovv, (and with 
the insertion of rt, ottcjcttiovv,) oirov^riTroTe, &c. 

06s. 5. In the same way as the corresponding adj. § 79. form other correlatives 
by adding their characteristic terminations to other general expressions, (as aWolog, 
fiavToioQ, &c, § 79. Ohs. 2.) so do the adverbs ; ex. gr. dWore, at another time, dWy, 
(on the question Trfj,) in another way or manner, &c. Trdvrojg, Trdvrr], (as responsive 
to TTwg, TTTJ,) in every way, entirely. Sec. avrov, avroOi, (answering to ttov, ttoQi,) in 
that place, there, &c. But the adverbs derived from dXXog, rroXiig, irdg, and eKacrrog, 
are commonly strengthened by the insertion of the letters ax, for instance, 
dXXaxov, elsewhere, iravraxov, TroXXaxov, in all, in many places, 
eKaaraxoOiv, from every side, dXXaxv, &c. 



* This demonstrative de must not be confounded with the ^£ which answers the 
question whither, (see above 2.) though the ancient authors themselves have some- 
times been guilty of this confusion even in the very word IvOdde. See the Note to 
Soph. Philoct. 481. 



I 



PARTICLES. 297 

Obs. 6. There are likewise negatives made of most of these forms : from ttots, ttw^, 
and rig, by a mere juxtaposition, 

ovTTOTs, firjTTors, never, ovttojq, ^rj-n-cog, in no way, by no means. 
These last forms in Homer throw the cr off before a consonant, (outtw, ^rjiru), II. y, 
306. p. 422.) and must, in that case, not be confounded with the particle of time ttw 
(ovTToi, [xTj-TTio, not yet). But the negatives are more generally derived from the old 
adj. ovcaixbg, fxr^dafibg, none. 

ov8afj.u)g, by no means, not at all, ovdajxy, ov^afiov, ovdaixoQsv, Sec. 

Obs. 7. The simple demonsti-ative and relative forms are obviously dei-ived from 
the artic. prcepos, and postpos., of which they partly are real cases, ry, ?), ov, and ol 
for ^, (compare the 2d Note to § 116, p. 294.) but the others are adverbial deriva- 
tions from them, for just as ujg, ojg, and rw^jare adverbs of quality derived from og, 
6, ro, so are b0ev, ore, formed from them with other terminations^. The forms 
ravry, ryde, ovriog, dXXy, aWiog, derived directly from other p7'onoims, and ovtcj, 
wds, (from ode,) have the adverbial form w for wg.' To answer the interrogatives tttj 
and TTwg, Uelvog gives sKtivy and iKeivojg. The forms ttou, ttt], TrCJg, &c. and 
others, of which there is no nomin. occurring, as Trdvrrj, Travraxov, &c. follow the 
analogy of the others. 

Obs. 8. The iota subscript should propei-ly not be placed under rj, according to 
§ 115. 06s. 3. in those forms of which tliere is no real nomin. as the radical word ; 
therefore it should be ttt), ottt], Travrr], a.\\axv> but y, ry, ravry, dXky. The former, 
however, are frequently written like the latter for the sake of uniformity. 

Obs. 9. Whenever the forms tots and ore occur twice (and sometimes even only 

once,) for Trore ■jrore — sometimes sometimes — (§ 149.) they are accented rorh 

— , ore — . 

Obs. 10. Dialects, a.) The Epics double the tt for the sake of the metre in 

OTTTTdtg, OTTTrOTS, &C. 

b.) the lonians substitute a k in all the above forms for the tt, for instance, 

Ktjg, Kov, oKwg, oKoOev, ovkoj, see § 16. Obs. 1. c. 
c.) the Dorians have for Trore, ore, &c. — ttoku, oku, &c. — ibid. 
d.) the Poets have the shortened form 6s, ex.gr. dXXoOe, iicTocOe. 
e.) instead of y there is an Epic form yxi or rjx*- 
f.) Tsiwg, e'lwg, are Epic forms for rewg, ewg, whence follows that retof and eiog 

must be read in all those verses of Horn, where reojg and ewg are met 

with in a Trochaius. 



§ 117. — Mutability of some other Particles. 

A. hi the Letters. 

1. There are some steady rules for varying ou, ou/c, ov^, and 
eS, Ik, according to § 26. for euphony's sake ; and some particles 
end for the same reason in a moveable v or g. This is some- 
times attended with a difference in the signif. Of this kind 
are 

iripav, [trans,) beyond, chiefly of rivers and waters; — but 
Tripa, [ultra,) over, across, farther, where the object is 

5 Compai'e the gen. of the same terminations in some pronouns with the termina- 
tion Bov : see § 72. Obs, 6, 5. 



298 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

considered as a limit or boundary. Both are preposition 
and adverb: see Buttm. Lexilogus, II. 69. 

avTiKpv and avTiKpvg (with a different accent). Homer 
uses the first form in all signif. indiscriminately ; but 
with respect to the Attics the grammarians state it as a 
rule that avriKpu is employed only in the physical sense 
over-against, straight-forward, but avriKQvg, in the figu- 
rative sense, straight-forward, without any ceremony, &c. 
But there are numbers of contrary examples each way. 
See Buttm. Compl. Gr. Gr, 

evdvg and av9v (see § 115. Obs. 4). As adverb of time, (im- 
mediately,) EvOvQ alone is used; but as adverb of place, 
[straight -forward, directly to,) commonly ivdv^ [ex.gr, 
£vdv AvKelov, svOv 'E(/)£(TOf,) but before a vowel rarely 
evOvQ (Eurip. Hipp. 1197). The Ionic forms lOvg, Wv, 
are used indifferently, and barely as adverbs of place, 
2. The following varieties take place, without any diflference 
in the signif. ; they belong to the Attic poets, or are used by 
them, though Ionic forms : — 

kav, rjv, av, if, (see § 139. A. 2.) : the a is long in lav 
and av, 

(yrjujiEpov, Att. TTjiuepov, to-day, -^OIq and exOlg, yesterday, 

(Tvv, anciently ^vv, with, elg, Ion. eg, in, 

ev, Ion. £vi, in, see below 3. 

aei. Ion. and poet. aU\ and alev, always, 

EVEKa, or EVEKEv, (thc latter even before a consonant, ex, gr, 
Xen. Hier, 3, 4, 5, 1.) Ion. EivsKa, eIvekev, on account of, 

ETTELTa, Ion. ETTEiTEv, afterwards, 

on, in the popular language, (Aristoph.) and otlyi, because, 
compare § 77, Obs. 2. 

instead of ov, not, no, and vol, yes, the Attics emphatically 
use ovxh (Ion. ouki,) vaixh § H* ^^^* 2- 

Obs. 1. There are some other 'varieties in the dialects: 

for TTpoQ, (to, at,) anciently Trport, Dor. ttotl, for /ierd, {with, &c.) ^ol. rrtdcCf 

for ovv, {therefore,) Dor. and Ion. wv, 

for avOig, (again,) Ion. avrig, 

for Ke, Ksv, (an enclitic particle used by Poets instead of av, § 139,) Dor. /ca, 

for y^, (ai least,) Dor. ya, 

for £(, (if,) Dor. ai, which the Epics also use, but only in a'i Kt, at yap, and 

aiOe. 
There are besides some Epic forms i^k for ^, {or, than,)—iii:ufj for e7r(idij> 
{as, since,) — tiV, sivi, for sv or evi. 



PARTICLES. 299 

A few prepositions, especially irapd and virb, take, in the old poets, the 
termination ai instead of a and a, Trapai, vTval. 
See some other dialectic varieties in the preceding Section. 

Obs. 2. The conjunction apa, and the prepositions Trapa and dva, with the Dorians 
and Epics frequently throw off the vowel even before a consonant, ap, Trap, dv, 
(or dv,) ex. gr. 

ovT dp ^psvag, ndp 6f(p, dv dk. 
When in this case dv comes before a labial letter, the old practice is to write, 
instead of dv TrkXayog, dv fisya, and the like 

dfiTTsXayog, dfi.[xsya : 
see § 25. Obs. 4. The same apocope takes place with the prep. Kara, but as no 
word can end with a r, this prep, is closely joined to the following words, and con- 
stantly converts the r into the following consonant, which consequently is doubled, 
or if it be an aspirata, (according to § 21, 3.) with the kindred tenuis before, thus, 
KUTTOv, KadSk, icafxixsv, Kayyovv^, KUTTcpdXapa, 
for Kara rbv, Kard Se, Kara [xev, Kard yovv, Kurd (pdXapa, &c. 
The Doric ttoti (for Trpbg) does the same, but merely before another r, ex.gr. 
TTOTTov, for TTOTi Tov^. All tliesc changes also take place in the compounds, as : 
TrapOsnevoi, Trapcrrdcra, 
dvaravTiQ, dwi-iji-y, dXXk^ai, dy^rjpaivo), 
Karravvaai, KarOavelv, Ka(5(3dg, KaKKsiovTeg, KaXXiirov, 
Kafifivoj, Kavvevcrag, KaTTTTfcrs, KappiZ,(x), KUKX^vai, and on account of the 
meeting of three consonants KUKTave, Kaax^Os, for KUKKTUve, KacrcrxiOs, 
and the prep, dirb and virb are abbreviated in the same manner in compounds, but 
only rarely and merely before kindred consonants, aTntkinniv, vj3j3dXX£iv. 

B. — Mutability of the Accent. 
3. Several dissyllabic prep,, which have the accent on the 
final syllable^ as Trapa, airo, Trspl, Sec, draw the accent back in 
the following two instances : — 
1.) When in the 

Anastrophe % 
they stand behind the noun, which they govern^ ex. gr. 
rovTOv iripii for Trepl rovrovy 
OeCjv airo, for cnrb OeCjv : 
the prep, aficjil, avrl, dia, and ava, are, however, excepted; 

2. When they are employed instead of compounds with 
the verb elvat ; or rather, when, this vei^b being omitted, they 

^ It follows of course that, in this single instance, yy is not pronounced like ng, 
but like gg. 

2 Many modern editors write separately dfj, TrsXayog, Kdd ds, Kdfi yihv, fcdy yovv, 
TTor rbv, and so on ; whereby writing separates what pronunciation combines. If 
we wish for consistency, we must, since we part the EMIIYPI of the ancients into 
kv TTvpl, write also dv Tr'sKayog. But then /car bk follows of course, and this is 
objectionable. It is therefore better to write Kabbt, Karrbv, and the like, as we 
write doijxdriov, ovtti, tyo)ba, and the like. 

^ This denomination was already equivocal among the ancients, since it was used 
for the withdrawing of the accent in both the instances stated. See Buttra. Compl. 
Gr. Gr. 



300 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

stand alone as adverbs, in which case the common language also 
has the Ionic Ivl instead of Iv, ex. gr, 
eyw -Kapa for TrdpufjLi, 

£7ri, £Vf, VTTO, for tir^GTiVy &c. 

to which belongs also ava for ava(jTr]di, up I up I 

Obs. 3. Strict critics accent the prep, in the same way, even when they come in 
poetry after tl^e Tet'b ; ex.gr. Xoixry cltto for cnroXovay, and when they attend the 
terh as an adverb, ex. gr. Trspi, tery, pre-eminently. We likewise write cltto, when 
this prep, does not merely signify from, but severed from, at a distance from (com- 
pare § 115,6). There is, however, as yet no unifox'mity in our editions in this 
respect, or with regard to the exceptions stated above. Another rule is that, when 
in the anastrophe the prep, is elided, it is not to have any accent whatever ; QtCiv 
air — not Qtiiiv dir' — but not in the second instance, ex. gr. ov ydp Itt' avri^ (for 
eTreariv). See the mutability of the accent in monosyllabic prejJ. § 147. Obs. 13. 
and about l^ and l^, ihg and wg, and the like, § 13, 4. 

Obs. 4. The interjection w has likewise a double accent : the circumflex only in 
the sense of a call or exiiortation, consequently before the vocative ; but in the sense 
of an ejaculation, that is to say before any other case, the acute or grave accent ; 
ex.gr. Soph. ^y. 372. w dvaixopog, og fxtOrjica, (0, how unhappy I am!) a> Tfjg 
dvaiSiiag, {0, what impudence I) w /jIoi, (woe is me!) and the same in the Epic 
exclamation a> ttottoi. But it is with this rule as with the preceding ones : see 
Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. 



§ 118. — Of the Formation of Words. 

1. The formation of words, in the full sense of the expres- 
sion, is not within the compass of grammar. The analogies of 
the primitive stock of any language are generally so obscured 
and disjointed by time, and the intermixture of tribes, — they 
are combated by such a variety of contradictory opinions, and 
so difficult to be cleared up with any reasonable degree of cer- 
tainty, that they require extensive and deep philological re- 
searches, which are necessarily kept distinct from the theory of 
grammatical forms. Grammar presupposes the existence of a 
number of words to be found in dictionaries, and leaves the in- 
vestigation of their relative bearings and analogy to individual 
observation. 

2. There is, however, a kind of derivations (which on that 
account may be considered as more recent) so complete and 
steady, that they may be brought under one point of view; 
this facilitates and accelerates so much the knowledge of the lan- 
guage, that grammar cannot refuse to them a place, especially 
as the analogies of this kind of formation of words are mostly 



DERIVATIONS. 301 

grounded in the analogy of inflections, and may even be re- 
garded as a continuation of the inflections \ 

3. This Section, however, is necessarily confined to verbs, 
substantives, adjectives, and adverbs ; the other parts of speech 
belong to the primitive stock of the language, and have already 
been partly investigated in other Sections. Derivation itself 
regards either, 1.) the terminations of words; or, 2.) their com- 
position. 

§ 119. — Derivation by Terminations. 

1. The annexion of terminations was regulated in Greek by 
two principles ; the endeavour to give a similar termination to 
similar signif, and the wish to adapt that termination to the 
radical word in the best manner possible. But the collision of 
these principles tended to confuse the analogy in two ways : — 
1.) The same signif. is frequently allotted to several different 
forms ; 2.) Terminations confined at first to particular forms 
of the radical words, [ex. gr. verbs in aw from a, — ow from oc? 
ov,) were transferred to other radical words, whose form no 
longer agreed with them, (as aw from oc, — ow from a, &c.) 
whenever a certain fixed signif. had been attached to several 
words of the same termination. 

1. — Verbs. 

2. Our attention here is chiefly directed to verbs derived from 
nouns [substantive and adjective). This derivation is most com- 
monly effected by the terminations, 

d(i), i(jj^ oil), evu), a^w, t^o), aivM, vvio. 
These terminations take the place of the final syllable of the 
nomin., when the radical noun is of the first or second declen- 
sion, and, if the noun be of the third declension, whenever its 
nomin. ends in a vowel, or a c preceded by a vowel, ex. gr. rijuri 
Tifxdu), TTTBpov TrrEoou), Qavjia Oavfidt^io, dXr]6iig aXriOevii) : in other 
words of the third declension the verbal terminations take the 
place of the og of the gen. ; ex. gr. jcoXaS KoXuKeviv, wvp [irvpog) 

TTVpOd). 

Obs. 1. The nomin. of the third declension in a, ag, and ig, which take the conso- 
nant in the gen., can only pass over into kindred verbal terminations, (a and ag into 

1 We only give a general outline ; the filling up is left to individual study and 
observation. Several distinct, but less extensive analogies have purposely been 
omitted, that the review of the main points might not be too much encumbered. 



302 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

dt^io, aivio — ig into i?w,) ex. gr. Oavjxa OavfiaKd) and Qaviiaivd), iKiriQ sXTrt^w : any 
other termination, whicli is not congenial to that of the noun^ is appended to the 
consonant of the gen.^ ex. gr. <pvyag ^vyadtvu), ^pi^jua %p?^/iari?a>. 

3. With respect to the signif. of these terminations^ we can 
only refer to the common use of the language, and notice the 
fundamental meanings of the majority of the vei^bs of each 
given termination. 

a. — i(jj and svio : these verbs are derived from almost all 
terminations, and denote chiefly the situation or the 
action of him whom the radical noun designates ; ex. gr, 
Koipavog^ a ruler, Koipaviio, to rule ; kolvcovoq., a partner, 
KOLVioviix), to take a part, to share in ; ^ovXog, a slave, ^ov- 
XevQj, to be a slave, to serve ; /coXa^, a flatterer, KoXaKevu), 
to flatter; aXriOrjg, true, a\r]9ev(jj, to be true, speak the 
truth ; fdaaiXevg^ (dacnXevw, &c. : most commonly they are 
intrans., but sometimes also trans,, as ^iXog, a friend, 
^tXlw, / love. 

These two terminations are in general the most fre- 
quent derivatives, and denote besides a great many 
relations, which also are partly expressed by the follow- 
ing terminations, especially the practice of what the 
radical noun denotes, ea?. gr. iroXqiuv, aOXeXv, Trojunrtveiv, 
XopevEiv, (j)ov£VHv, j3oi>Xfu£iv, or what is most usually done 
with the object which the nou7i designates, ecc. gr, avXog, 
a flute, avXdv, to play on the flute ; ayopa, a public 
assembly, ayopevsiv, to address an assembly ; iTnrsveiv, to 
ride on horseback, &c. The termination to), as the 
easiest of all, is mostly used in compound derivations, as 
iVTVXi^w.) liTL^upib), oifcoSojUsw, hp^oXaptiw, fivrtfJiKaKiu), 
&c. ; and most verbs in £w are generally intrans. 

b.— aw: These verbs come most naturally from nouns of 
the first declension in a and r/, but pass also to others, 
and express chiefly having a thing or quality, and per- 
forming an action ; ex. gr. kojuy], hair of the head, xoX?), 
bile, — KOjuav, to let the hair grow long; '^(oXav, to be 
bilious, or irascible ; Xlttoq, fatness, fat, Xnrav, to be fat ; 
j3o77, a clamor, joog, griefs mourning, — j3oav, yoav ; ToXfia, 
boldness, roXfiav, to be bold. Hence, when any of these 
verbs denotes the applying of such a thing to another, 
it is transitive; rf/x??, honor, rifiav riva, to honor any 



DERIVATIONS. 803 

one^. — See also below the verbs denoting diseases, 
5,1. 

c. — 0W5 mostly from nouns of the second declension. These 
verbs denote, 1.) making the object to which they are 
applied the thing expressed by the radical word, ^ooXouy, 
to make one a slave, drjXow, to make known (from SriXog, 
known) ; 2.) converting into what the radical noun ex- 
presses, or imparting the qualities of that noun, by 
labor: -x^pvaotx), I gild; fiiXTou), I stain or color with red 
{juiXrog, red-lead); irvpow, I set on fire; ropvou), I turn 
with a lathe ; 3.) providing with the thing expressed by 
the noun; arecpavow, I croivn; Trrepooj, I furnish with 
wings, {-Trrepov,) (rravpoto, I crucify, &c. 

d. — aZoj and t^w — the first termination is most naturally 
used with words in a, r}, ag, &c. ; but for the sake of 
euphony also with other terminations. Both termina- 
tions comprise so many meanings, that they cannot be 
reduced to particular classes, ea^. gr, ^iKaZoj, ^hixoZw, 
opi^w, jusXfJw, OtpOiii), Xokt/Jw, &c. It may, however, 
be noticed, that, when these terminations serve to make 
verbs of the proper names of individuals and nations, 
they denote adopting the manners, party, and language of 
those persons or nations ; for instance, Mrj^iZ^tv, to have 
the sentiments and opinions of a Mede ; 'EW^vi^hv, to 
speak Greek; AwpiaZeiv, to speak in the Doric dialect ; 
(ptXiTnriZ^Lv, to be of the party of Philippus : see also 5, 2. 

e. — aivw and vvii) : — this last termination always is derived 
from adjectives, and denotes imparting the quality of the 
adj., ex.gr. rjdvvHv, to sweeten, asfivvvuv, to make vene- 
rable, revere. The adj., whose degrees of comparison in 
L(ov, ifTTog, seem to presuppose an old positive in vg, form 
their derivative verbs after this positive, ex. gr. alaxpog, 
[ai(jXLwv, from AI2XYS,) — aicryyvLo, and fiaKpog^ KoXog, 
firjKvvw, KaXXvvu), &c. The verbs in aivto frequently 
have the same signif., XsvKaiviiv, to whiten; KoiXaivuv, 

^ It may be matter of surprise here, and in similar instances, that the abstract 
noun should be the parent of the verb ; but this frequently is the case when the 
subst., as is very usual in all languages, is derived from an old simple verb, and then 
forms a new verb, which renders the old one obsolete. This is evidently the case 
with Tiu), nuri, Ti[id(i) : we may therefoi"e presuppose it in others, as /3o>), vUrj. 
Analogy, at all events, requires us to derive, if there be no other reason, the fuller 
termination from the lighter one ; though it may occasionally happen that such a 
word as /3oa'a» existed before, and that the simple word (Soij was derived from it 
according to the analogy of others, which were exactly the reverse. 



304 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

to hollow out, &c. Yet several of these verbs are also 
neuter : yakiiraivuv, "^vay^^aiv^iv, to he angry, &c. and 
sometimes they are derived from subst., especially from 
those in jxa, [arifxa GriixaivM, du/uLa SeL/aaivii),) with various 
signif. 

4. There is another peculiar way of making verbs of nouns, 
by merely changing the terminations of the latter into w, in 
which case the preceding syllable is^ according to this conso- 
nant, strengthened in the manner in which we have seen pres. 
tenses strengthened above § 92. 

Thus iroLKiXog gives TroLKiXXw, ayyeXoQ ayyeXXu), KaOapog 
KaOaipd), jULoXaKOQ juaXacFcru), (papjuaKOV (papfidcrcru), fisiXi^og /uel- 
Xl(J(T(x), TTvpSTog TTvgkaab), ^aXeirbg ;^aX£7rr6L)5 &c. The signif. is 
constantly derived from the most general signif. of the radical 
noun. 

5. To these must be added the following more limited classes 
of derivative verbal forms : — 

1.) Desideratives, verbs expressive of a desire or longing 
for ; they are most commonly formed by changing the 
fut. (of the verb, the purport of which is desired,) crw — 
into a pres. tense, creiw, ysXao-etw, / long to have a laugh, 
should like to laugh, TToXefxr^deiu), I wish for war, long to 
fight, &c. 

There is another form of desideratives in aw or idu, 
which properly comes from substantives, e<r. gr. Oavar^v, 
to wish for death, desire to die ; arparriyiav, to wish for 
a military command, desire to command an army. But 
they are also made of verbs, which are previously con- 
verted into subst., eoe.gr. wveicrOaL, {(bv-qTrig,) — (hvrjnav, to 
desire to buy, long to become a buyer; KXaitv, {KXavmg,) — 
KXavaiav, to wish to weep. 

This form of vei^bs very naturally passed into a kind of 
imitatives, ex. gr. rvpawiav, to play the tyrant ; but it is 
very improper to rank verbs, denoting diseases, in the 
same class, as ocpOaXfii^v, v^eptav, \pu)pq,v. Sec, which 
rather belong above to 3, b. 

2.) Frequentatives in ^w, ex. gr. piTrrdZeiv, (from piirrHv,) 
to toss about, MED. to toss one^s self about, be uneasy ; 
(TTEvaieiv, (from gtIvslv,) to groan very much ; alruv, to 
ask earnestly, ciItlZelv, to beg alms; epireiv, to creep, 
epirvZuv, to crawl slowly. 



DERIVATIONS. 305 

3.) Inchoatives in o-kw, § 112, 10. Obs. 6. 

1 1 . — Substantives, 

6. We begin with those substantives 

A. which are directly derived from verbs. We must, how- 
ever, previously observe in general, 

1.) That the terminations and inflections, especially those 
beginning with a o-, conform themselves to the analogy 
of the fat. 1.; those with // and r to that of the perf. 
pass., and those with a vowel to the analogy of the 
perf. 3., but that this conformity is a necessary one only 
in instances grounded in the fundamental rules of the 
language ; ecc. gr, of the subst. in aiq, with \h<^fut. in o-w, 
in f6,ETd^io — a(TW — acrig, rpt'jSw, rpiiptjjy rp7\pig, of those in 
fiog, fia, fii]y with the 1 pers. perf. pass, in ttXekw, TriirXey- 
juai, TrXiyfia, &c. In all the others, where the rules are 
less steady, there is a frequent, but not necessary con- 
formity between the terminations of verbs and of subst, 
derived from them, of which the principal varieties are 
stated in this Section. 
2.) That the terminations beginning with a vowel (as rj, 
og, evg,) are formed from ve7'bs contracted in iu) and aw 
in such a manner that the e and a are dropped^, except- 
ing, however, the smaller verbs, which cannot lose their 
vowel, since it belongs to the root, but can only change 
it {psio, porj). 

Obs. 2. A (T is inserted before r and [x in the 2^ erf. and aor. I. j^ass. in words de- 
rived from terbs, whose characteristic letter is a lingual, excepting a few poetical 
forms (§ 102. 06s. 1. OavnaTog). But those derived from what are called verba 
pura, sometimes insert the <r and sometimes not, without any regard to the inflec- 
tion of the verb. When there is no <r inserted, we may on the whole conform in all 
terminations to the analogy of the fiit., ex. gr. in BeartjQ, Oeafia, Ovfxa, the vowel is 
long as in Oedaoixai, Qvaio, yet with this limitation, that the terminations beginning 
with a and r, sometimes shorten the long vowel, especially when the verb itself 
shortens it in the aor. l.jxiss. See above, § 95. 06s. 4, with the Note, and below, 
06s. 5 and 7. But those beginning with fi conform in this respect almost generally 
to the analogy of the fut. 1., neglecting even the peif. pass. ; see 7- a. 

2 It follows from the Note to p. 303, that there must be some reason for sup- 
posing that the fuller sounding verb was in existence before the subst. It is more- 
over obvious that, when the fuller verbal form is merely a lengthened old form, it 
is perfectly indifferent whether we say, for instance, that KTYIIQ comes from 
KTVTTog, and ktvttsoj again from the latter, or whether, for bi'evity's sake, we rather 
consider in all such cases the usual verbal foi'm as a radical form. 

X 



306 A GREEK GRAMMAR. ^ 

7. The following terminations chiefly denote the action or 
effect of the verb, 

fiog, fxr], fjLa, <ng, Gia, 17 or a, og masc, og neut. 
a. — fiog, fxr) or fxi), jiia, gen, rog. These terminations may 
be compared with the perf. pass., but those in /nog, when 
there is a vowel preceding in the radical word, take 
generally the o-, whilst the other two do not always take 
it, even when the perf. pass, has the o-, and those which 
do not take the a- retain the long vowel of the fut., even 
when it is shortened in the perf. pass, (yet so that some 
are fluctuating between rj and £,) ex.gr. TiOrjiLu, {TtOeiiuai,) 
— OscFiLLog, Oifxa or Oruuia, Saw, (SeScjUaf,) — decT/ULog, dijia, 
^iadY)iLia,'yiyvd)(TKU), (tyvuxJiJiai,) — yvujjLiri^ Xvu), (XeAv/xat,) — 
XvjLia. With respect to signif. the nouns in fxog properly 
denote the real abstractum, ex.gr. TraXXw iraXfiog, the act 
of brandishing ; odvpojum odvpjubg, the act of wailing ; 
olKTdpii) olKTipidbg, commiseration ; Xu^w, (Xu?w,) Xu^juoc? 
sobbing ; adw, (ju<jfxog, trembling. The termination jua, 
on the contrary, rather denotes the effect of the verb as 
a concretum, and even the object itself, so that it cor- 
responds most to the neut. part. perf. pass., ex, gr, 
Trpajjua, what has been done, deed, business ; iii}ir]ixa, 
imitation, that is, resemblance ; airupti), airipjia^ what has 
been sown, seed, &c. The termination py] fluctuates be- 
tween both ; ex. gr. pv{]pri, memory, eiTKTTrjpr}, knowledge, 
Tipri, honor, — aTiypri, a point, ypappi], a line, which differ 
only in collateral meanings from ariypa, mark, ypappa, 
a written character, a writing. 

Obs, 3. Some words in [xbg of the primitive language have merely the vowel 
before the jit without the cr, ex. gr. ^HiibQ,fear, Kpvfibg, frost, cold ; — or they have a 
9 instead of the a, ex. gr. opxriOiioQ, dancing, from dpx^ofiai, fivKfjOfibg, K\av9nbg, 
Hr]vi9 fji.bg, &c. (3a9fxbg, (properly, stepping, from (3aivio,) hence ste2J ; even after 
the p, as (rKap9nbg, from (XKaipu) ^. 

Obs. 4. The above differences in point of signif. must be noticed as a basis ; but 
always remembering, that not only in poetry, but also in popular language, the 
meanings of words in the abstract and concrete frequently run one into the other. 
Thus, for instance, XaxfJ^bg, (compare § 23. 06s.) xP^^^H-og, do not signify casting 
lots, delivering oracles, but lot, oracle, whilst ^povrj/xa signifies mitid, intelligence, 
inclination. 

b. — aig, ma denote the real abstractum of the verb with very 

2 Compare also the derivations from IQ, dm — Wfxa, step, pace, and ia9nbg, 
(properly walk, way, hence) narrow neck of land between two seas, isthtnus; and from 
aa9iia, difficulty of breathing, asthma. 



DERIVATIONS. 307 

little deviation; ex. gr. fxlfiqaig, act of imitating ; irpa'^ig, 
acting, action ; (TKrjipig, &c. ; SoKijuaaia, tibial, examina- 
tion; Ovaia, sacrifice; kE,07rXL(TLa, &c. In some compo- 
sitions (Tia denotes the action rather as a permanent 
property; ex.gr. o^vfdXe^pia, fcax^Sta^ which forms imper- 
ceptibly pass into similar ones derived from 7iouns, 
which see below at 10^ 4. 

Obs. 5. Some forms, which belong hither, deviate from the analogy of the fut. in 
point of quantity, as aipecng, ysveiyig, Okcrig, riaig, Xvcrig, (pvcng, Cvcrig, Qvaia. See 
Ohs. 2. Compare the verbs in the list of Anomalous Verbs, respecting the short 
syllable in rlaig and (pOicrig. 

The following have not such a distinctly marked signif., but 
the idea of an abstract generally predominates in them : — 

c. — »j and a, mostly oxytona, ex. gr. ^\)\ri, prayer or peti- 
tion, from eu^o/iai, — (^(payri, slaying, slaughtering, from 
GcpaTTO), — SiBaxn, teaching, doctrine, from SiSao-/cw — aE,(i), 
— X"P^5 J^y> from xaipdj, — and with a change of the 
vowel into o, (in the way of the perf. 2.) TOfii) from 
rijuivb), ^9opa from (pOeipio, cioi^i) from addto, &c. Some 
of them take a redupl. corresponding to the Attic redupL 
of the perf. and constantly having an w in the second 
syllable, e<2?. _^r. aywyri from ayw, Idojdi) from eSw, (eSr^^a,) 
oKijJxni from ex(t), compare the Note to p. 264. 

Some are paroxyto7ia, as j3Xa|3r], damage, from jSXa/rrw, 
/SXajSw, fJia\r\, battle, from juaxofiai, vt/cj], victo7'y, from 
vLKah). To this class belong also the words in -da, which 
are formed only from verbs in £uw by changing eu into 
cf, ex. gr. iraideia from TraLdeinv. They always have a, 
and consequently the acute accent on el. 

Obs. 6. With respect to the accentuation of all nouns in tia, compare first § 34. 
Obs. II. 3. and keep to the following rule : 

The /em. of oxytone adj. in vg, ex. gr. t)lvg, r'jdela, B.re proper isj)omena. 
1.) The abstracta oiadj. in rjg, ex. gr. aXr]Qua, (see 10. a.) (SorjOsia from l3or]9bg, 
and 2.) The fern, of nouns masc. in tvg, ex. gr. Ikgna, priestess, (see § 12, 3. d.) are 
proparoxytone ; and the just-mentioned abstracta of verbs in tvu) 2ive paroxytona. 

d. — oc masc. By far the greatest number of these w^ords 
have in the principal syllable an o, either naturally or 
changed from an e, ex. gr. kqotoq, clapping of the hands, 
from KQOTiijj, (pOovog, envy, from ^Oovlw, \6yog, speech, 
from Xiyuj, poog, (povg,) from piio, — yet also tXtyxog, 
refutation, from IXiyxw, tvttoq, from tvittw, iraXog from 

TToXXu), &C. 

x2 



308 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

To these may be added the subst, in toq, which com- 
monly are oxytona, ex, gr, afiY]TOQ, harvest-time, kwkvtoq, 
ivaUing, partly with some little alteration, as verog, rain, 
from vco, Trayerog, ice, from irriyvvfii. The accent is 
drawn back, for instance, in (^lotoq, life ; -noTog, drink 
(from TTLvci), iriTTOfxai). 
e. — OQ, neut., ex. gr. to kTi^oq, care, from kZ/Sw, \axogf lot, 
from \ajx^^^) Trpayog the same as irpay^a, &c. These 
verbal nouns never have an o in the principal syllable ; 
hence to yivog, offspring, but 6 yovog, generation. 

8. The subject of the verb, as man, is denoted by the termi- 

nations. 

a. — Tr]Q, [gen. of,) rr]^, Tuyp. The termination rrjc after the 
first decl. is the most common, and the words are in 
part oxytona, and in part par oxytona, ex. gr. a9\r}Trjg, 
athlete, ivrestler, from a&Xiw, fjLa6r]Trig, disciple, scholar, 
from fiaOalv, OeaTrig, spectator, from Oidofiai, SiKacTTrig 
from SiKciZd), KpLTYjg from Kpivw, &c. but Kvj3epv{]Trig^ pilot, 
from KtijSfovaw, irXdaTrjg, (from TrXarrw, Tri-iiKadjiai,) 
Svva(JTr}g, \paXTr]g, &c. 

— rijp and Tojp are more uncommon forms, which frequently 
occur in the dialects and in poetry along with Tr]g, but 
are also in use in several words of the popular language, 
ex. gr. (jwTrip, deliverer, pijTwp, orator, (from oraow and 

*PEO,) laTLCLTWp, &C. 

Obs. 7- Some sliorten the vowel before the termination, {Obs. 2. b.) ex. gr. bttsv- 
SvTTjQ, OvTtjp, dsTijg, aLpsTTjg, particularly derivatives compounded with subst. and 
Tjykofiai, as odrjysrrjg, 'MovtirjysTTjQ or MovcraysTijg. 

b. — Evg, ex. gr. -y^a^tuc, writer, (pOopevg, destroyer, seducer. 

Obs. 8. The terminations under a and b have also been partly given to things 
which may be considered as agents or subjects of an action ; ex. gr. dfjrrjg, a gale 
of wind, iTTSvdvrrjg, tipper tunic, Trpj^crr^p, storm, ^wariiip, girdle, in(3oXevg, dibble, 
bolt, piston. The use of masc. forms in connexion with fern, ones is a syntactic 
licence; see § 123. Obs. 1. 

c. — og, mostly in compounds only, ex. gr. Z<j^ypa(}>og, 
painter, waTpoKTovog, parricide. Sic. ; but Tpo^hg, {6,7},) 
one who educates, aoiEog, singer, and some old words like 
apxog, leader (Horn.). 

d. — r]g and ag, gen. ov, only in a few compounds, as juLvpo- 
irwXrjg, Tpirjpdpxvg, (and -eg,) 6pvL9o9{]pag. 

9. The names of tools and other implements, necessary to the 



DERIVATIONS. 309 

performance of an action or operation, are derived from the pre- 
ceding denominations of subjects or agents^ or at least presup- 
pose them in point of form ; especially 

— Ti]giov, Tpov, and Tpa, from the termination rrjp, ex. gr. 
\ovTi]Qiov, bathing-tub, \ovtqov, water for bathing, a bath, 
aKpoaT{]pLov, hall of audience, lecturer^s room, ^varpa, 
currycomb, op^^arpa, place for dancing, 
— uov, from the termination ^.vg, esc. gr. kovquov, barber's 
shop, from kovo^vq, barber, and this from kuquv, to shear, 
shave, rpocpuov, recompense for educating, from rpocpevg. 
10. Another principal species of subst. are 

B. Those derived from adj. and attributes, and chiefly 

for the mere purpose of expressing the abstractum of 

the adj. Of this kind are the terminations 

a. — ia, constantly with a, (Ion. r],) ex.gr. aot^oq, ivise, 

aocpia, ivisdom, and KaKia, deiXia, &c. Also jSXajcm from 

[5Xa^, eiiSaiiuovia from Evdaifiwv, ovog, avdpia ^, from 

avrip, avdpog, Treifia from Trevrjg, Y}Tog, a/aaOia from ajua- 

Orig, eog. The adj. in rjg commonly make their subst. in 

eia, as will be seen presently. 

Compound adj. in rog very generally change the r 
into (T in the subst., ex.gr. aOavarog aOavaaia, ^ixnreTTTog 
dv<T7re\pia. 

From the termination (a come the subst. in 
£m and om 
through contraction ; but the a then becomes shorty and 
the accent is transferred to the antepenultima, sia from 
adj. in rjg, eog, for instance, aXijOeia from aXr]6rjg, oia 
from adj. in ovg, as avoia from avovg. 

Obs. 9. The abstracta of some adj. are also merely in rj or a, (yet always paroxy- 
tona,) ex.gr. from kukoq, {fern, kukt],) rj kclkti for KaKia, from kxQQOQ,{fem. Ex^pd,) 
rj tx^^a., enmity. Hence from the adj. in ioq, ex. gr. ogioq, d^iog, alriog, subst. 
T} baia, law, duty, d^ia, worthiness, airia, cause, blame, which forms happen not to 
differ from the fern, of the adj. 

b. — Tr)g, gen. rr^rog, fern., ex. gr. IfroTr^g, equality, from 'i(Tog, 
TTaxyrr^g from iraxvg- They are all paroxytona with very 
few exceptions^ as TaxyTrjg, ^riiorrig, gen. rjTog. 

* The reading dvdpeia, though frequently occurring in our editions, is incorrect, 
as appears from the above analogy. 



310 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

c. — cruv)], ex. gr. ^iKaioavvr], dov^ocrvvri, mostly from adj\ in 
wv, ovog, eoe.gr, <jh)^^oavvr\ from <j(Lfpp(i)v, ovog. Those 
which have a short vowel in the fourth syllable back- 
wards, take, as is the case with the comparatives in repog, 
an o) in the antepenultima, but excepting hpodvvr], 
priesthood, there are only a very few words of this kind 
of the later language in Demosthenes; see Fischer ad 
JVeller. 2, 40. 

d. — oc, neuter, especially from adj. in vg, ex.gr. (^aOog^ 
depth, from (5a6vg, ra^og from rax^c ' hence also from 
those adj. whose degrees of comparison seem to presup- 
pose such an old positive, ex. gr. to KaXXoc, alaxog, 
fxriKog, from KoXog, {KaX\iwv,y al(T)(^Qog, {aLa)^i(7Tog,) 

/laKpOg {jLU^KKTTOg). 

11. With respect to subst. 

C. derived from other subst. 

we must first notice some terminations formed after the analogy 

of verbal nouns, thus 

1.) The masc. in Tr]g (of which those in LTY}g all have 7) 
often denote a7i individual, simply relatively to his occu- 
pation, which is expressed by the radical word ; ex. gr. 
TToXtrrjCj citizen, from iroXig, city, onXiTr^g, armed soldier, 
from ottXov : fTTTrorr/c, horseman, form 'lirirog, yeveirirr^g, 
bearded young man, from yiveiov, ^uXlrrjc^ one of the same 
tribe, from (pvXr} : and (according to § 63. Obs. 7.) they 
are even used as adj. 
2.) Those in evg have the same signif._, ex.gr. hpevg, priest, 
from kpov, temple, (or from ra Ispa, sacred things, vic- 
tims,) ypLiravg, aXievg, fisherman, from ypXirog, net, aXg, 
sea, ypafXfiaTevg, &c. 

12. The rest may be stated under the following classifica- 
tions : — 

1.) Those which denote a place consecrated to a divinity, 
with the terminations toy, mov, uov, ex. gr. Aiovixriov, 
'A(^^oSic7iov, "Hpaiov, MovaHOv, 'JlpaKXnov. 

2.) Those which denote a place where certain objects are 
in great numbers, are terminated in wv, gen. Covog [masc.) 
and wvfa, ex. gr. annr^Xibv, vineyard, po^wvia, rose- 
shrubbery, avlpLov, the men's apartment, fjieXaTwv, a 
place of study or practice. 



DERIVATIONS. 311 

3.) Female, or feminine denominations^ 

a. — rtfpa, rgia, and tqiq, gen, rpidog, properly from masc. 
in Tr}p and rwp^but also from some in rrjQ, ex.gr. (rtLTeipa, 
female deliverer, opyjiarpia, female dancer, avXrjrplQ, 
female player on the flute {6pxr]<rTriQ, avXriTijg). 

b. — ig, gen. tdog, is the most common termination for deri- 
vatives from masc. in rjc and ag of the first declension ; 
for instance, Sfcr7rori]Cj master, decnroTig, mistress, iKBTrjg 
iKETtg, '2Kv9r}g, '^KvOig, fivpoirwXrig, luvpoirwXig {female 
perfumer) . 

c. — aiva, chiefly from masc. in ii)v, ex. gr. OepaTrojv, [ovrog,) 
OepdiraLva, maid-servant, Xewv, {ovrog,) Xeaiva, lioness, 
riKTCjv, {ovog,) reKTaiva, workwoman, AaKijJv, {covog,) 
AcLKaiva, likewise from some in oc? ex. gr. Owg, Otaiva. 

d. — eia from two masc. in evg, ex.gr. Upeia, priestess, from 
lepevg, fSacriXsia, queen. 

e. — (To-a from several terminations of the third declension, 
ex. gr. jSao-tXio-tra from -svg, Trlvrjo-cra from -rig, ava(Taa 
from cLvaE,, KiXiaara, Opyacra, {Att. Op^rra,) from KlXl^ 
and Qpyt, or Qpa^, 

4.) Gentilia, denominations derived from one^s native 
country. These are A. masc. B. fern, and C. possessive, 
{adj.) 

A. Masc. or for Males. 

tog, and of the first declension — a7og, ex. gr. KopivOiog, 
Tpoi^rjviog, ^ A<T(Ti)piog, BvZdvTiog, (from Bv^dvTiov,) 
"'AOrjvalog, Aapicramog, partly with some alteration in 
the radical word, ex.gr. from MtXrjToc? MiXi]aLog, and 
from names in ovg, ovvrog, not only ^OirovviLog, but 
even from ^AjiaQovg, ^Xiovg^ ^Avayvpovg, — ^AfiaOoixriog, 
^XidcTiog, ^ Avayvpdaiog. 

— i}vog, avog, Tvog, used only of towns and countries out of 
Greece, ex. gr. KvZiKr}vog, 'EapBiavog, Ion. liupdirivbg, 
from '^tdpdsig, 'AtrmvoCj TapavrXvog. 

— irrjCj WVQ} (iTVQ^y id)Tr]c, ex.gr. 'A/BSr/pirr^c? ^eppovYicrirrig, 
AlyivrjTYjg from Aiyiva, Yliadrrig, ^TrapTidr-qg, (lon. 
-irjTYjg,) SfjcaAtwrr^Cj or in 

5 The rule that the a in the gentilia in drrjQ is long, must therefore not be ex- 
tended to instances in which there is no derivation from any radical word, as in 
"EapnaTrig, Sannatian (Lat. Sarmata). 



312 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

— EVQy ex. gr, AXoS^vq, ^w/cfuc^ {inhabitant of Phocis,) 
Atjpisvg, Mey a pevg from Miy apa, Mavriv^vg from Mav- 
TivEia, IlXaTaLBvg from UXaraiai, ^(i)KaiEvg, better $w- 
ica£uc, [Phoccean,) from ^wjcata, EwjSosvc from EujSota. 

B. Feminine, or for Females, — Besides the usual con- 
version of the termination og into y] and a, ex. gr. ^kaiavri, 
' Adnvaia, they either merely change (according to 3. b.) 
the r]g of the masc. termination into ig, ex. gr. ^TrapTiaTig, 
SujSopTrtc^ &C.5 or they annex ig and ag, according to 
euphony, to the radical name itself, ex. gr. AloWg, Awpig, 
MEyaQig, <Pb)Kig, <Pu)Kaig, Ar^Xiag, (from AriXog,) and all 
these names may be applied to a female or the country^ 
supplying either yvvn or 7^. 

C. Possessive gentilia, {KT-nriKa,) is the denomination of 
adj. immediately derived from the gentilia, denoting 
only a reference to them, but chiefly possession. They 
almost all end in Kog, see below 13, c, ex. gr, ^v^apiTL- 
Kog, KopivOLaKog, AaKedaL/LLOVLKog. 

5.) Patronymics, expressing the name of a family, or de- 
scent (origin) of an individual. 

A. for males. The terminations 

— tdrig, ddr]g, iddvg, gen. ov, are the most usual forms, and 
idrjg may be considered as the principal, being applicable 
to most final syllables, whilst d^r]g is used only for 
names of the first declension in ag and 7]g, ex.gr. K^Kpoxp 
KeKpOTTidrig, Kpovog Kpovidrig, 'AXicmoc ^ AXKdidrjg, Bo- 
piag Bopeddr^g, 'iTnroTrjg 'iTnrorddng. The names in tog 
probably gave rise to the termination mSrjc for euphony^s 
sake, ex.gr. Msvomoc MevoirmSrjc. But the pleasing 
rhythm of these terminations (_^^^._), and especially 
their fitness for the hexameter, caused this form to be 
used for a variety of names, which had a long syllable 
before the patronymic termination, ex. gr. <^EpY]rid^y\g 
from ^iprjg, riTog, TfAa/iwvmSrjCj 'AjSavrm^rjCj &C. The 
dramatic iambus on the other hand preferred the com- 
mon form, which is likewise applied to such names, 
ex, gr. HaWavTidrtg, 'AX/c/iattovt^rjc? UsXoTTLBrjg, 'O^jj- 
pL^Vg. 

— t(i)v, gen. wvog, (seldom ovog,) is a more uncommon col- 



DERIVATIONS. 313 

lateral form, but barely with poets, ex. gr. Kpoviwv, 
^ AKTopiwv. 
The quantity of the l is regulated by the metre. 

06s. 10. The patronymics oi najnes in tvg and kKtiq have originally Et^yjg, and 
hence in the common language by contraction h^i]q, ex. gr. UrjXeiSrjg, 'i!v3iidt]Q, 
'EpaKXEidijg, from TLTjXevg, TvStvg, 'HpafcX/}^ : and it is the same with the termi- 
nation iujp, ex. gr. UrjXeiwv. The Dorians retained the resolved form, ex. gr. 
KpijOevg KprjOuSag. The Ionic declension ivg, gen. rjog, gives the Epic form, 
llTj\T]'ia.dr]g, &c. 

Obs. 11. The is contracted in the same way with the i in Uav9oidr}g, Ar]ToidT]g, 
from ILdvOoog, (^YldvOovg,) Ar]Til), oog {Latona). 

Obs. 12. It frequently happens that the very name of an individual bears a 
patronymic form ; ex. gr. MiXriddijg, 'S.ifiojvidrjg, AtvKaXiwv, and sometimes the 
same name has a double form, as Evpvrog and Evovtiojv. This induced the Epic 
poets to presuppose such a form, even of names, which commonly do not end in 
(uv, that they might derive from them a patronymic suited to the metre, ex. gr. 
from 'Aicpicnog — 'AKOKjiojviddijg, from 'laVsroe — 'laTrerLOviSrjg. But from the 
same motive they likewise omitted the wv in the 2^<^t^'onymics of names, which 
actually had this syllable, ex. gr. AevicaMoJV — AevKaXidtjg. 

B. for females. The patronymics oi females correspond on 
the whole to those of males ; idrjg and oSrjc give for females \g 
and ag, ex. gr. TavraXtc? 'ArXavrt^, Q^GLag : tldr]g gives ifig, 
ex. gr. Nr^prjlc, and iwv — nLvri and ivr], ex. gr. 'AKpicnwvr}, 
^Adpriarivri. 

6.) Diminutives^ of which 

a. — Lov, {to,) is the principal termination, ex. gr. irat^Lov, 
little boy, (jwjudrLov, little body, paKiov from to paKog, &c. 
To render the diminutive still less, this termination 
often takes an additional syllable, particularly in the 
following way : i^iov, aptov, vWiov, vdpLov, v(l)iov, ex.gr. 
TTLvaKi^Lov from TrtvaJ, Trat^dpLov from Tralg, pELpaKvXXLOv 
from paipaE,, p^Xv^piov from ro juiXog, Zwvcpiov from ^wov. 
Obs. 13. Of these diminutives, all those which have four or more syllables, (to 
which contracted words, like jSoidLov for fSotdiov, also belong,) and most trisyl- 
lables with three short syllables are proparoxytona ; the other trisyllables which 
make a dact}l are paroxytona, with but few exceptions. 

Obs. 14. The termination idiov is contracted with several vowels, as (ioi^Lov, 
yr\^iov, properly yydiov : with v and with i it becomes v and 7, ex. gr. IxOvdwv, 
vSiov, from I'xQt'f, ve, inaridwv from indrLov. Hence the first i of radical words 
ia ig, gen. etjjg, is long ; ex.gr. prjTeidiov, (from prjuig,) for the reading Tdiov or 
eidiov in several of such words is doubtful. The a in the termination dpiov is 
always short. 

Obs. 15. Many words in lov have completely lost the power of a diminutive ; 
ex. gr. Orjpiov, animal, from 6 9rip, (3t(SXiov, book, from 7) (3ij3Xog. 

b. — LGKog, to-fcrj, ex.gr. arz^aviGKog, Trai^ia-Krj. 

c. — ig, (77,) gen. Idog and idog, ex.gr, Oepanaivlg, (from Ospd- 



314 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Traiva,) TrivaKlg, (from 6 Triva^,) (7)(oiv\g, Tdog, from <T)^oXvog, 
&c. The termination idiov above is the intensive of it. 

d. — vXog, (rather Doric,) e^. gr. 'EpiorvXog from"Epwc. 

e. — i^evg, merely of the young ones of animals ; aendevg 
from aerog. 

Some peculiar diminutives, like TroXixvr} from iroXig, TriSaKvr} 
from TTiOog, must be learned by practice. 



III. — Adjectives. 

13. Most adj. which clearly bear the stamp of an analogous 
derivation, end in og, but the letter preceding this termination 
must be carefully attended to. 

a. — tog is one of the most general terminations which is 
directly derived from mostly primitive nouns, and de- 
notes tvhat belongs to the object, concerns it, comes from 
it, &c. ex. gr, ovpaviog, TroTafiiog, ^iviog, (poviog, tcnrepiog, 
&c. This termination is also particularly used when a 
new adj. is derived from an adj. in og, ex. gr. kXEvOepog, 
free, eXevOipiog, liberal, becoming a free man; KaOapog, 
clean, KaSapiog, cleanly. 

Ohs. 16. When the termination ioq is appended to a word having a r, this is some- 
times changed into <j, ex. gr. sviavrog, year^ Iviaixnog, annual, eKihv, ovrog — Jkou- 
(TioQ. See also above, 12, 4. A. 

By connecting the i of toe with a preceding vowel, it gives the 
terminations 

aiog, eiog, oiog, wog, 
ex. gr. ayopalog from ayopa, 'A9r}vaXog from 'AOtivai, 
alEoTog, r)(fog, from al^wg, oog ', 17WC5 00c ; (JTrov^eTog from 
cFTTovdr} (instead of cnrovdiiiog). Practice, however, some- 
times gave to one of these terminations a peculiar and 
more expressive meaning, ex. gr. waTpiog, what concerns 
one's forefathers, ancestors, or counti^y in general ; ira- 
rpc^og decidedly what concerns the father, paternal, to 
which latter form jmriTpwog, TrainrMog, were made to cor- 
respond. But the termination -eiog is particularly used 
in adj. derived from words denoting particular species or 
individuals of living beings, ex. gr. avOpMirsiog, human, 
XvKiiog, of or belonging to a wolf, avdpeiog, yvvaiKetog, 
&c. ; it is especially the most usual form for adj. derived 



DERIVATIONS. 315 

from personal names, whenever the last syllable of the 
latter admits of it, ex. gr, 'O/ui^peiog, 'ETriKOvguog, UvOa- 
yopEiog, 'EvpLiriduog, &c. 

b. — eog denotes chiefly the material of which something is 
made ; it is contracted into ovg, see above, § 60, 6. 

c. — Kog has the same latitude of meaning as log, and ex- 
tends also to verbs {ex. gr. ypa(liiKog, apxii^og, belonging 
to, skilled in painting, qualified to govern). The most 
usual form is — iKog, and when m comes before, it gene- 
rally becomes — a'iKog, ex. gr. rpoxdiKog from Tpoxdlog. 
Words in vg give — vKog, ex. gr. OriXvKog, but termina- 
tions which have an i before, give — a/coc, ex. gr. 'OAu/i- 
7ria,"l\iog, — ^OXufXTi iaKog,^\\iaKog, (nrovddog mrovSeiaKog. 
This termination — laKog, on account of its more sono- 
rous rhythm, is frequently preferred to the simple ter- 
mination — iKog, though it properly is a double deriva- 
tion, ex. gr. KooivOog — KopivOtog, a Corinthian, KopivOi- 
aKog (in Latin Corinthiacus) . Compare above the ter- 
mination — La^r]g. 

d. — vog, an old pass, termination, (like riog, rbg,) whence 
^Hvog, terrible, dreadful, aefivog^ (from <ji(5opat,) venera- 
ble, (TTvyvog, hateful, &c. 

— ivoc as a.proparox. almost constantly denotes a material, 
ex.gr. ^vXivog, wooden, made of wood, XWivog, &c. There 
is one exception in avOpcoirLvog, which has the same lati- 
tude of meaning as avOpMTreiog. As oxytonon, it gives 
adj. of time, ex. gr. rijUEpivog, xi^Eaivog, [of yesterday, from 
X^EC S) TTE^Lvog, (viz. all a plain even field,) quite level, 
opeivog, mountainous, ev^iuvog, quite serene, &c. 

— Tvog, avog, n^og, are only gentilia, see above, 12, 4. A. 

e. — Xog, an old act, termination, whence SeiXhg^ afraid, who 
fears, {timid,) aKirayXog, (see § 114. Note on XeXtrj/iot,) 
who frightens others {formidable). But the lengthened 
terminations riXog and wAoc are the most usual; they 
denote habit and custom, airarrjXog, deceitful, af^iaprwXog, 
one addicted to evil, &c. 

f. — ip.og. Adj. of this termination are almost all verbal 
ones denoting act. and pass, properties, qualities, or fit- 
ness ; the termination is annexed according to different 

^ With respect to quantity, there are but few instances in poetry where ivoq is 
employed as lung, as oTTw^tivbg is in Homer. 



316 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

analogies, ex. gr. ^pyjaijuog from ^paojuai^ useful, Tp6(j)iiJ.0Q, 

nutritious, nourishing, Oavaaifiog, deadly, iroTifiog, potable. 

This termination is also sometimes lengthened : aiog, ex. 

gr. vTTo^oXipialoQ. 
g. — poQ, f.pog, r)pog, denote mostly, filled with, ev.gr. olKrpog, 

mournful, (pOovepog, envious, vocrr^pog and vocrspbg, sickly. 
h. — aXtog has pretty nearly the same signif., ex.gr. Oappa- 

Xlog, (from Oappog,) pMniaXtog, SHjuaXeog, \pu)pa\iog, &c. 
i. — Hog and rog, see § 102. 

14. The remaining terminations of adj. are : 

a. — Eig evTog, with i, t], or o preceding, denote fulness, 
plenty; ^apisig, graceful, vXifsig, woody, shaded with 
woods, TTvpoeig, fiery, full of fire. 

That those in {]ug and oeig admit of a contraction, has 
been stated above, § 41. Obs. 5. and § 62. Obs. 3. 

b. — r\g, ^g, gen. ovg, — acts as a derivative only in com- 
pounds, (§ 121.) and produces the singular termination 
— u)dr}g, u)deg, gen. ovg — with changed accent from — od- 
dt]g, (from udog, form, shape, kind,) ex. gr. o-^rjKwSrjc^ 
wasp-like, yvvaiKM^rjg, woman-like, effeminate. But they 
usually denote quantity, abundance, and frequently in a 
sneering, criticising sense, ex. gr. xpajujdujdrjg, alfiaTwdrjg, 
iXvuj^rjg, full of sand, blood, mud ; sandy, bloody, muddy. 

c. — /xwy, gen. ovog. Verbal adj. after the analogy of the 
subst. in ^a, and derived from the latter, mostly denote 
the act. property belonging to the verb, ex. gr. vornuiov 
from voHv, intelligent, sensible, TroXvirpajfAwv from iroXvg 
and Trpayfia or irparrHv, engaging in a variety of affairs ; 
liriXriafUDv, forgetful. 

Lastly, there is a great number of adj. obtained merely 
by composition, as we shall state in the following Sec- 
tions : — 

IV. — Adverbs. 

15. Independently of the simple way of forming adverbs by 
changing the declinable final syllable of adj. into ijjg, as stated 
§115. there are the following terminations oi adverbs : — 

a. — ^r\v. These are all verbals, denoting the manner of 
the action of the verb, from which they come; the t^r- 



I 



DERIVATIONS ADVERBS. 317 

mination is annexed partly in the same way as rioq, rog, 
yet with a necessary change of the characteristic of the 
verb, and never with a a, ex. gr. <7vXXr]f3dr]v, taking all 
together, viz. summarily, on the whole ; icpvfddrjv, secretly, 
Pfa^r]v, step by step, aviSrjv, licentiously, without restraint 
(from avn]ixi, avtrog) : partly in the shape of adr]v ap- 
pended to the radical word with the change of the 
vowel; ex.gr. (T7ropadt)v, scattered, irpoTpoiradriv, {(pevystv,) 
to flee ivith backs turned to the enemy, without looking 
back, &c. 

b. — Sov, Y}dov, mostly come from subst. and refer chiefly 
to the manner and outward shape ; ex. gr. aysXrj^ov, by 
herds or flocks, jdorpvdbv, in bunches like grapes, ttXlvOy]- 
^ov, (from irXivOog,) laid in the form of tiles, kwyi^ov, like 
a dog. When they are verbals, their import is the same 
as of the adverbs in ^r]v, ex. gr. avacpav^ov, openly, mani- 
festly, in sight of the people. 

c. — I or £t ^ These denote a circumstance connected with 
the action mentioned in the sentence or proposition. 
The verbals in particular end in 

—r\ or ra, which are appended in the same manner as 
Tog, ex. gr. ovofiaarl, by name, {ex. gr. to call one up 
by name,) lyQ-qyoQrX, watchfully, especially when com- 
pounded with a negation and other meanings^ ex. gr. 
ayeXaGTi, without laughing, avtdpwrl, without sweat, la- 
bour, aiaaxnrel, without fighting, aKrjpvKrel or t\, without 
a proclamation by a herald. It is hence and from what 
has been stated above^ 3. d. of the verbs in (^m, that 
adverbs in — kttI denote the ways, manners, and lan- 
guage of a nation, class of people, or an individual, 
ex. gr. 'EXXr]vi<TT\, in the Greek fashion, in Greek, yvvai- 
KLGTi, in the manner of women; and av^paTro^iGri, ^o'iaTl, 
&c. 
Adverbs made of subst. have merely \ or £i in the place of 
the declinable termination ; thus in kKovri, voluntarily, a vara, 
ivithout injury, from aTr], the r belongs to the radical noun. 
Most adverbs of this kind are compounds, ex. gr. irav^^fxu, as if 
it were as a whole nation, altogether, in a body, avTovv\H, (from 

2 This double pronunciation was regulated by euphony, and in poeti-y perhaps 
also by the metre, since i may likewise be used as short. In our editions it is regu- 
lated by the MSS., or influenced by the number of examples. 



318 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

an old declension, vi/^? X^^>) ^^^^^ ^^^2/ w^^^^^j afiax'^^i, without a 
contest, avTox^ip^i, "f^^th one^s own hands, ajuLLdOX, gratis, without 
compensation, vrjTronn, (from the negation vii, § 120. Obs. 12.) 
with impunity, &c. 

d. — S, an uncommon form, which generally attaches itself 
to palatals, and takes an adverbial signif. ; eic. gr. ava- 
jui^, promiscuously, confusedly, wapaWaE,, alternately, 
okXcl^, (from oKrXa^w,) with bent knees, squatting, odaK, 
with the teeth (from odovg). 

§ 120. — Derivation by Composition. 

1. The first part of any compound word is a noun, verb, or 
indeclinable word. 

2. When the first word is a noun, its declinable termination 
is generally changed into an o, which, however, is usually 
elided whenever the second word begins with a vowel ; ex. gr. 

XoyoTTOiog, iraidoTpifd-ng, crw/xaro^iiXaJ, lxOvoiru)\rig, (from 

i)(^dvg, voq,) dLKO'Ypa(j)og^ (from St/c*],) 
voiJ,ap\r}Q, (from vo/uLog and ap^ao,) TraidayMjog, (from ayw, 
ayuyyy),) Ka\eE>La (from KaKog, t^ig). 
But in most instances, where the noun ends in either v or i, 
there is no o assumed; for instance, 

evOvdiKog, 'jTo\v^ayog,iTo\LiTopdog, (from ev9vg,Tro\vg, TToXig,) 
the same after ov and av, ex. gr. 

j3ov(})op(5og, vavfiayia, (from (5ovg, vavg,) 
and frequently also after v, ex. gr. 

jLteXay^oAm, jueXajUTTtTrXoc? (from ju^Xag, avog,) irafx^ayog 
(from irag, iravrog). 

Obs. 1 . The o sometimes remains before vowels, especially such of which it may 
be supposed (according to § 6. 06s. 3.) that they had the digarama in the old lan- 
guage ; ex. gr. fjLrjvoeLdijg, [xtvoeiKijQ, dyaQospyog. But in the compounds with ipyov 
or EPFQ, the o is usually contracted with'the 6 : drjfiiovpydQf Xeirovpyog. 

Obs. 2. The w comes from the Attic, or the contracted declensions ; ex. gr. vecjKo- 
poQ, (from vsijjQ,) dpSMKOfiog, (from opevg, gen. opsojg,) icpioj^dyog (from Kpeag, gen. 
aog, wg). In all the compounds of yrj, earthy it becomes ytio, ex. gr. yeu)ypd(j)og, 
instead of yao- from the old form TAA (see § 27. Obs. 10). 

Obs. 3. Some primitive nouns in fia, gen. arog, frequently simply change their a 
into 0, or drop it altogether ; ex. gr. a\}ioaTayrig, (rrofiaXyia, from alfia, arofia. 

Obs. 4, In some compositions, especially in poetical ones, the form of the dat. sing. 
or dat.pl. is taken into the compound word ; ex. gr. Trvp'nrvovg, vvKrnropog, yatrrpi- 
fxapyoc, opeivofjLog, (from opog, eog,) vavanropog, lyxi^aimopog. — This latter form is 
frequently shortened into eg, (from og, gen. sog,) ex. gr. reXeacpopog, aaKt(T7rdXog, 
from TO TsXog, aaKog. 

Obs. 5. There are some other peculiainties, which must be left to individual 



I 



DERIVATION BY COMPOSITION. 319 

notice ; ex. gr. fxecTanroXiog from ^sgoq, odonropog from oSbg, dpy'nrovQ from dpyrjg 
or dpybg, TTodaimrTTjp from Trovg Trodbg, uKpaxo^og fx'om dicpog, QrjjiayEvrjg, fioiprj- 
yevrig, e\a(pr]l36\og, \anTraSr](p6poc, Qy)^r], /.lolpa, from eXacpog, XafXTrdg, — and the 
og of the Jiomin. seemingly retained in OeoaCorog, Xaoaaoog'^. 

3. When the first word is a verb, its termination is generally- 
made either in e with the unaltered characteristic of the vei^b 
before it. or in en, ex. gr. 

apy^iicaKog from cipy^siv, ^aKsOvfiog from daKV(jj, e^aKov, 
XvcFLTTOvog from Xvm, Tp^^i->^pwQ from TpiTro), iyfoori^^opoc 
from kyEipii), 
Here too the vowel is elided, ex. gr, 

(pipaaiTigi pi-ipacririQ. 

Obs. 6. The instances are less frequent where the i is without the a, as in rcpTri- 
Ktpavvog, and in several compounds of dpxif-v, ex. gr. dpxi'Q^(^pog, or where the xerb 
also takes the a, as in almost all compounds with Xai/rw, ex. gr. XftTTord^iov. — We 
must also notice the form raiitaixpiog, (from rkyLVix), irafiov,) \nrs.(yrjvu)p, (from 
XeiTTw, IXiirov,) and the shortened one in <pi.p'i.(j^iog (for <p£pi(Tij3ioc). 

4. Indeclinable ivords remain unaltered in composition, except- 
ing the changes effected according to the general rules^ and in 
prep, by elision; ex. gr. ayyiaXoQ, (from a-yxL and a\g,) 7ra\aiy£- 
vriQ from iraXai, avaf^aivoj, avkp\0}xaL, from ava, lKip\ojuai, 
hfiaivu), from e^, wpoayii), Trepiayd). (§ 30, 2.) — With respect to 
the V in compounds with kv, (tuv, ttoXlv, and ayav, see § 25 ; and 
about h- and ^lq-, rpi and Tpig-, see § 70. Obs. 2. with the Note, 

Obs. 7- The prep. Trpb sometimes makes a crasis ; ex. gr. Trpoy^oj, TroovTrrog, for 
Trpo'sxto, TrpooTTTog, particularly with the augment, see § 86. Obs. I. See about 
^povdog and the like § 17- — and about the abbreviated forms TrapOifievog, dvcrrdv- 
Tsg, Ka(3j3aX£iv, and the like, § 1 17- Obs. 2. 

Obs. 8. That Trepi does not lose the t in composition, follows of course from § 30, 2. 
But d^(pl, too, frequently retains it, ex. gr. in dficpiaXog, dficpUreg, from dXg, irog. 
The rest of the prep., particularly in Ionic Epic poetry, retain the vowel in some 
compounds, which originally had the digamma before the second word ; but with the 
Attics only in k-isffaGQai, tTTiopKuv, (§ 108. III.) and STruLicrjg. 

Obs. 9. Withfespect to the separation of syllables, the rule is that, when the 
prep, ends in a consonant, the latter always continues with the first syllable, as 
£iV-fpxo/xat, 7rpo(T-dya), evvdpog, e^-spxonai. But when the consonant in the ^9/-ej9. 
begins the second syllable, it begins this syllable even when the vowel is elided in 
the compound ; ex. gr. Tra-pdyoi, d-Trairetp. 

5. The principal inseparable joar^icZes are Suo--, which denotes 
difficulty, contrariety, and the like, {ex. gr. Svcrfiarog, of difficult 

1 It is important to remember that there are neither datives nor nomin. to be 
looked for in the above compounds. Vowels and the letter <t are the natural con- 
necting medium. Distinctness and euphony determined the selection. In both 
reXeffcpdpog and 9i6crdoTog the a is only a strengthening sound ; £7X£(T//uwpog has a 
sonorous fulness, &c. 



320 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

approach, inaccessible, ^vcr^aifjiovia, a contrary fate, misfortune,) 
and what is called the 

a privative, 
which has the power of a direct negation like the Latin in and 
the English un, in^ and less ; ex. gr. a[3aTog, impassable, airaig, 
childless. This a generally takes an v before a vowel ; ece. gr, 
avaiTLog, (innocent, gtiiltless,) from atrm. 

Ohs. 10, Several words beginning with a vowel, especially those mentioned in § 6. 
Ohs. 3. as having originally begun with the digamma, take, however, merely the a, 
ex. gr. ar}TTr]Toq, doivog, &e. : hence it is liable to contraction, as in o-kcjv, {unwill- 
ing,) for dsKOJv, apyog, {idle,) with altered accent, (§ 121. Obs. 6.) from depyog. But 
the V remains before a consonant in dvvs(pe\oQ, afi<paair) (from d and <pr]fjii). 

Obs. 11. When we find it stated that this a has also other meanings, and even a 
magnifying poioer, this must not be understood as if we were in all instances at 
liberty to explain it as such. It has these signif. barely in some old compounds, 
which must be remembered singly ; we will therefore notice the most important, and 
leave the rest to dictionaries. The d has the raagnifying power in drevriQ, {intensely 
fixed, speaking of the eyes,) from Tt'ivio, to stretch, distend ; alBpojxog, cKTKeXrjg, {very 
dry, hardened,) dxav^g, daTtyrjg, d^vkog {thick-wooded). It expresses a combination 
or joining into one in dyaXaKTeg, {foster-brothers a7id sisters,) dyd(TTO)p, ddsX^og, 
cLKOiTig, drdXavTog, literally of the same weight, \\z. equal ; dXoxog, (from Xexog,) 
aKoXovOog, (from KsXevOog,) aTrsdog, {level, even,) dj3oXsTv, {to meet,) and in all these 
instances it probably comes from the aspirated d in aTrXovg, airag, afxa. But there 
are still some cases, in which the d is superfluous, or of doubtful use and signif., as 
ddcTx^Tog, dfSkrjxpog, d^iog, aTrrepog, and others. 

Obs. 12. There is another negation less common than the d privativum, viz. the 
inseparable particle vrj, ex. gr. vrjiroivog, unpunished, vrjarig, fasting, (from vr] and 
idu),) vMWuog (from vrj and ovofia), 

Obs. 13. The inseparable particles, dpi, spi, and Za, have each of them the magni- 
fying power ; ex.gr. dpL7rpe7rt)g, very distinguished, £pi/3pojuog, loudly roaring, sound- 
ing, Zanevrjg, very mettlesome. 

6. When the second word in any compound begins with p 
preceded by a short vowel, this p, according to § 21, 2. is gene- 
rally doubled ; ea^. gr. IcroppeTrriQ from 'i<jog and peirw, iriipippiw, 
airopprjTog, appijTog (from a and prjTog). 



§131. 

1. The form of the latter part of a compound word determines 
the whole word, which accordingly is either a verb, or a noun, or 
a. particle. 

2. The most usual composition of verbs is that in which the 
verb continues unchanged,, and retains its peculiar conjugation 
with its augments and terminations. Strictly speaking, there are 
no compound verbs of this kind, but with the eighteen old pre- 
positions, (§ 115, 2.) ctfKpl, ava, avA, airo, ^la, dg, ev, l^, lirl, 



DERIVATION BY COMPOSITION. 321 

KQTCL, fxsra, Trapa, 7r£^t, Trpo, Trpog, <tvv, vTrlp, viro : and in fact 
this is no real composition ; the prepositions are merely con- 
sidered as adverbs closely connected with or joined to the verb 
(in the sense of up, into, forward, away, Sec). A similar con- 
nexion or combination of the unchanged verb with real adverbs 
and other kinds of words is considered altogether as a juxta- 
position, and is therefore generally written separately, as £u 
TToaTTSiv, jca/cwc TTOtay. 

Obs. 1. It is only in ancient poetry that some verbs, especially participles com- 
pounded with a, particle expressive of a peculiar distinct meaning, are written as one 
word : ex. gr. avkpvaav for av ipvaav, they bent backwards (the neck of the victim), 
TraXinTrXayxO'svTag, and the like, and even the accus., which is the.government of 
the verb, ex. gr. daKpvx^(^v. See F. A. Wolfs Prcef. ad II. noviss. LXI. 

Obs. 2. It is precisely because the usual composition with prepositions is to be 
viewed in this light, that such compounds in poetry are liable to what is called a 
tmesis ; see § 147- Obs. 10. 

3. But a real composition, by which one word coalesces with 
another, and is closely joined to it in an altered shape, as 
well as compositions with inseparable particles, can take place 
only in verbs changing their form so as to beget a new com- 
pound verbal form, with a derivative termination, which most 
commonly is cw : and such a composition is, as we shall see 
below (4.), generally grounded in a compound subst. : for in- 
stance, ipyov and Xa/ij3avw give IpyoXa^oq, whence IpyoXa^nv^ 
£u and ip^u) (EPTO) give ^v^pyirriQ, [a benefactor,) whence 
evspytTeiv, {to practise beneficence,) Svg and apiaKU) give Bv(t- 
apECTTog, [morose,) whence ^vaap^dTuv, {to be displeased,) and 
when instead of (jjEi^eaOai, {to spare,) the negative idea not to 
spare, to disregard, is to be expressed with the a priv., the adj. 
a(^£tS77C gives cKpsiSHv. There are, however, compositions with 
prep, also formed in this way; ex.gr. clvtl^oXuv from avrif^oXi], 
from avTX and fdaXXtj, virspij.ax^'iv, (from viripjuaxog,) from virep 
and juaxo/utai. 

Obs. 3. When the verb remains unaltered in such compositions, it is owing to an 
accidental agreement of the derivative termination with that of the radical verb, 
ex. gr. ttoisu), I make, ixEXoiroibg, fieXoTroiso) (/ compose songs, write poetry) ; thus 
fivpoTTioXeo) does not come from {xvpov and irdjXkuj, but from fxvpoTrojXrjg, dfpovso) 
not fi'om a and (ppovkuj, but from dcppiov, &c. : neither is drifido) from rifj,do), but 
merely a collateral form of driixd^o) from drifiog. 

4. Only in compound subst. a proper coalition takes place, 
though the second part frequently is the unaltered noun. But 
even when the two words are unchanged, they always are con- 
sidered as a single word, and never separated by a tmesis ; 

Y 



322 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

and it seldom is the case in such compounds, that the last word 
conveys the principal idea modified by the first word. This 
mostly happens only in compounds with prep. : ex. gr. ^€voc, 
host, guest, -n-Qo^tvoQ, public guest ; odog, way, coming, (jvvodog, 
meeting; ofiodovXog, fellow-slave. Adj. only are commonly 
modified in their signif., when compounded in this manner ; ea^. 
gr. TTKTTog, ivoi'thy of belief, airiGTog, unworthy of belief; cpiXog, 
dear, cherished, v-n-iprptXog, doated on. But when, for instance, 
an abstract subst. like rfju>7, honor, is to be negatived by the 
a priv. {dishonor^) there is first an adj. arijuog made, and from it 
a new subst. arifxia. In this kind of compositions the adj. in 
vg generally take the termination rig, ex. gr. rjBvg, pleasant, 
arjdrig, unpleasant, fiapvg, oivo(^aprig, and the like. 

5. But in most compound nouns the second part does not 
convey the principal meaning, or the subject of the proposition, 
on which it is founded, but merely its object, though this 
second part frequently is the unaltered denomination, and this 
is the case whenever the noun itself has a termination, which is 
not in contradiction to the gender of the new noun to be formed. 
Thus 

awoiKog, BsKTidaifxtov, is not an olKog or Sat/xwv modified by 
the first part of the denomination, but the former is one 
ivho is airo rov oikov, distant from his house, the latter one 
^siaag rovg ^aifuLovag, fearing the gods. Thus airaig, one 
who has no child, childless ; juiaKpox^i^pi one who has a long 
arm; 'ivOeog, inspired by a divinity ; IwixaipUaKog, one who 
eTTLxaipei ToXg KaKoTg, delights in the misery of others, &c. 
But when the termination of the noun does not correspond to 
the intended denomination, the noun takes the most congenial 
final syllable of a declension, viz. either a bare g, or the termi- 
nations og, (xjg, gen. w, i]g, gen. ovg, ig, gen. dog, or wv or top pro- 
duced by the change of vowel stated in § 63, 2. ex. gr. 

ciBaKpvg, (from daicpv,) tearless ; Tps\id£nrvog, (from Tpe\it) 
and duTTvov,) one who hunts after dinners ; svdvdiKog, who 
practises strict [BiKr]) justice, an upright judge; arifiog, 
stripped of {tijui)) honor, dishonored; (l)i\oxpvfJiarog, ivho 
loves [xprifJ-a, xpiipara,) money ; evyeivg, of a good soil {yi], 
yew-), fertile; Xenrovsiog, loho quits his ship {vavg, v£wc) ; 
KaK0i]9r]g, of a wicked disposition {riOog) ; avaXKig, (dog,) 
cowardly (ciXki]) ; o-w^pwv, of sound understanding {(ppriv) ; 
^vTranop, bom of a noble father {irarrip), noble. 



I 



DERIVATION BY COMPOSITION. 323 

Compare § 63. with all these forms. This is the origin of a 
great number of compound adj. or attributive subst. 

6. Generally when a compound novM is to be formed with 
the help of a verb, the verb comes last, and takes the termina- 
tion of a noun, and the first word contains either the purpose 
or the object of the action of the verb ; ex. gr. lpyo\d(5og, who 
undey^takes a ivorTc ; iiriroTpocpoQ, who feeds horses. The simple 
termination og is the most common in compounds of this kind, 
and for subst. the terminations rjg and ag after the first de- 
clension, (see the examples, § 119, 8. d.) but for adj. rjc after 
the third declension {ex. gr. ev/uLaOrig, neut. Ig, apt to learn, 
who learns easily) ; and also the other terminations of nouns, 
(stated in § 119, 8.) ex. gr. vofxoOiTrig from vojuog and ridriiii, 
&c. 

7. Other derivative words are again formed from such primi- 
tive compounds as ^cicriSat/xovta, vojioQeaia, voiuLoOeriKog, &c. 
and from the compound verbs, stated sub 3. as iTnroTpo<f)i(i) 
from tTTTTorpo^oC} (VTraOiu) from eviraOrig, &c. 

8. The most remarkable of the alterations, which sometimes 
occur in the second word, is that words beginning with a short 
a, or with g and o, commonly take an -q or w, but this never is 
the case with, verbs compounded in the manner described sub 2. 
with prep., though it is done with attributive nouns derived 
from them, and with the compound verbs of the second kind, 
(see above, 3.) ex. gr. 

vTTijKoog, obedient, from viraKovw, (jrpaTrjyog, military com- 
mander, from (TTQarog and ayw ^, KaT{]yopog, KaTriyopio), 
(from Kara and ayopa, ayopsvo),) an accuser, to accuse; 
£vr]V£iJ.og from av^fxog, EvcrrfXaTog from iXavvw, avwfiorog 
from o^iwiuLi, &c. 

and the compounds of ovojua change moreover the second o 

into V, avujvvfiog, evwvvjuog, &c. 

9. With respect to the accent, the general rule is, that the 
accent of the simple word is, (according to the analogy stated 
above, § 12, 2. a.) in composition, drawn as far back as the 
nature of the accent will allow. Thus, for instance, (piXorsKvog, 
(piXoOeog, come from rticvov, Osog, (rvvodog from 6^6^^ airaig 
airaidog, from iraig irai^og, arifiog from rifiri, (piXiraipog, Evnap- 
Oevog from iraTpog, napOivog, iravaioXog, [extremely vayious. 



^ The words derived in this manner from ayw and dyvvm have also, in the com- 
mon language, partly an a, ex. gr. Xoxayoe, vavayog. 

Y 2 



324 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

changeable,) from atoXocj {various,) cnraiSevrog, ^v(77rai^evTog, 
from TraidevTog, &c. We must_, however, remember that 

' 1.) The termination of adj. in i]^, tg, has also commonly 
the accent in compounds on the final syllable ; ex. gr. 
(piXoiuiHdrig, TrpO(T(l)i\rig, cnraOrig. But several of them, 
and especially the compounds with riOog^ i^mog, rdxog, 
apKitt), draw the accent back: evrjOrjg, evr}9eg, avTapKtjg, 
&c. Those in -(Ldr}g do the same. § 119, 14. See 
Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. 

2.) Verbal nouns in 77, a, rjg, rip^ evg, and ^og, which, as 
simple words, have the accent on the final syllable, keep 
it there, when compounds; ex. gr. linTOfxy), avix(popa, 
oiKO^ofiri^ (Tvv^iKaGTTiQ, (Tvyypa(^evgf ^Tnrifi^Tibg. Subst. 
in iLiog, as diaavpjuog, Trapo^utrjuoc^ &c. with the exception 
of the compounds of ^eafihg, as avvBtajixog, &c. do the 
same. Compound adj. in roc (compare § 60.) most 
generally have rog, tov, with the accent drawn back, 
rarely rog, rri, tov : no rule can be relied on in this re- 
spect, ex.gr. airoj^Xrirogy k^aipeTog, &c. but KaOeKTog, rri, 
TOV, Sac. 

3.) Words, not compounds, but derived from compounds, 
{wapacTvvOeTa,) follow in their accentuation the general 
analogy of their terminations ; ex. gr, the abstract 
verbals in ?) and a, as o-uAXoy?), Trpoa^o^a, from avWiyio, 
TTpocKpipcj, aSiKr]TiKog from adiKog, adiKsTv, Trapo^va}iog, 
from Trapo^vviOf TrpoGdoKrjTog from irpocF^oKav. (See, 
however, Obs. 7.) But when such words receive an 
addition in their composition, they again draw the accent 
back, ex.gr. aTrpocrSojcrjroc. 

4.) Those compound words, of which the first part is a 
noun or adverb, and the second a transitive verb, with 
the simple termination og, (not Tog, vog, or the like,) 
have in general, when their signif. is an act, one, and the 
penultima short, the accent on this syllable, but when 
their meaning is pass., the accent is on the antepenul- 
tima ; ex. gr. 

i^ \i9o(56Xog, throwing stones, 

\i66j5o\og, pelted with stones, 
Orestes is juLrjTpoKTovog, but Medea's children fxriTpoKTovoi, 
'^LKoypa^og, one who writes indictments, X^irToyga^og, finely 
written; and so on generally, even when there is no 
other than the act, meaning possible, as in o\Kov6p.og, 



DERIVATION BY COMPOSITION. 325 

olvo^oog, Toi\(i)pvxQQ from opucrcraj, adr}(payog from aSiqv 
and (jyayHv, and the like. But the accent passes over 
to the final syllable, whenever the penultima is long ; I 
ea^. gr, \pvxo7ro1u7rog} (TKvrods-tpbgy iTnroj^odKOc;, XiOovXKbg, 
(from fX/cw,) fuLeXoTToibg, deiv(t)7rog, (from OIITQ,) ocriyog, 
iraidaywyog, apyvpa/jLOildog. 

Obs. 4. There are no compounds of this kind proparoxytona, contrary to these 
rules, except a few Epic epithets, {iTciro^afxog, (xaKscrTraXoQ, 7rroXtVop0of,) and the 
derivatives of a few terhs beginning with a vowel, as rjvioxoQ, (from rjviov exw,) 
vavapxog, and this is likewise the principal accentuation of the perispomena, as 
Sq.5ovxoQ, (from ^ada Ixw,) KaKOvpyOQ, Travovpvog, from EPFQ : the other similar 
derivatives of this last verb follow the rule, dyaOospybg, \i9ovpy6g, &c. 

Obs. 5. When the verb has an intransitive signif., it adheres steadily to the gene- 
ral rule. Hence we have avroKTovog, (fi'om snavrbv ktsIvoj,) but avrSnoXog, (from 
avTog IjiioXor,) and also icroppoTTog, ^apv^pojxog, and alp-oppoog, aljioppovg, 
TTvpiTrvovg, and the like, because the verbs pdv, ttvuv, are intransitive in these 
words, and the nouns are only datives. 

Obs. 6. Some compounds become oxytona, contrary to the general rule, because 
their derivation has been lost sight of, ex. gr. aTpairbg, adeX^bg, (SovXvrbg, dpySg. 
See p. 320, dpyog. 

Obs. 7- Practice must point out the few isolated instances in which words com- 
pounded with pj'ep. do not draw the accent back, or in which the mere derivative of 
a compound does yet draw the accent back, as is the case in particular with several 
words in rog, ex.gr. i^aiperog, iTriXtjirTog, viroTrrog, Tzepippvrog. 



326 



SYNTAX. 

§ 122. 

1. Syntax teaches the use of the forms whose formation has 
been treated of in the first part of the Grammar. It follows 
for that purpose the grand division of the parts of speech, as 
stated above, § 31. 

2. We shall treat therefore — 1.) of the noun in itself and 
other nominal forms ; 2.) of the noun in combination ; 3.) of the 
verb ; 4.) of the particles ; 5.) of several particular construc- 
tions and phrases. 

^\2^,— Of the Noun. 

1. Whatever is joined to a noun subst. adjectively, {adjective ^ 
participle^ pronoun, article,) must agree with it in gender, num- 
ber, and case, 

2. There is a seeming deviation from this rule in Greek by 
the Attic writers: adj. &c. with a masc. termination are joined 
to a subst. fern, in the dual, ex. gr. Xen. Cyrop. \, 2, 11. Kat 
imiav oLfKlut) tovtio rw rifxiga XoyiZovrai. Plato Phcedr. 237. 'H/xwv 
kv ^KaaTU) dvo rivi Icjtov l^ia ap^ovre kol ayovTe, olv ^TTO/ULeOa. 
Thus frequently rw 9au) and roXv Oeolv, {Demeter and Persephone,) 
from 7} 6s6g. But since we have seen above, (§ 60, 3. 4.) that 
the adj. in oq often are communis generis, especially with the 
Attics_, we need only take for granted that this is usually the 
case with all adj. in the dual. 

Obs. 1. Poets sometimes allow themselves to construe attributive subst., Avhich 
are masc. barely in form, (§ 119, 8.) with nouns fern. ; ex. gr. Movaai 'ioTopsg (pSfjg, 
'Epivveg XojjSrjTrjpfg, TrafijSoJTopa yalav, (piXiov diatpOopev to a female, Eurip. Hipp. 
682. (see Valck.) ^ 

3. But the adj. may also stand without a subst. not only in 
reference to a subst. in the same context, but very frequently 
also without any subst. whatever : the subst. then, either is ac- 
tually omitted, or the idea of a subst. (as a man, woman, thing,) 
is kept in the mind. Such an adj. acquires in that case all the 

^ The intermixture of forms in the dual and pi. chiefly takes place only on con- 
necting the subject and the predicate. See § 129, 5. 



SYNTAX. 327 

properties of a subst., ex.gr. 6 (jo(l)Oi', wise [man), i) avuSpoc, viz. 
yri, desert {earth destitute of water), ri opOrj, viz. o^bg, straight 
{road), 01 TToXXot, the many, multitude, people, ra Ifia^ my things ; 
and also the pronouns ovrog, iKetvog, r\g, &c. 

Obs. 2. In this last way most subst. have originated in all languages ; hence in 
Greek many personal denominations denoting trade, condition, office, (as a shepherd, 
judge,) are still used, as it were, as adj., with the addition of the word dvTjp, when 
they apply to one individual only. Thus, for instance, 7roLfir)v {shepherd) stands 
alone only in reference to his flock ; but dvrjp Troifxriv, where we commonly say 
merely a shepherd, when the strict sense is, a man who is a shepherd ; and again, dvrjp 
Tvpavvog, a man icho belongs to the family of a ruler, of a sovereign (as Hipparchus, 
brother to Hippias, the actual ruler, tyrant, of Athens). See also avrip (piXog, 
§ 132, 4, 2. a. When directed to several individuals, it is a respectful address, ex. 
gr. avcgtQ diKaarai, ye judges! 

Obs. 3. The adj. may sometimes supply the place of the adv., and some adj. in 
Greek are almost always employed only in that way. Of this kind are, eOeXovTtjg, 
voluntary, {lOeXovrriQ diiDJei, he icent away xoluntarily,) dcrfisvog, willing {d^ixevr] 
kdk^aTO, she accepted it tery willingly) ; and several adj. denotmg tbm, as rpLraloL 
dcpiKovTO, they arrived at the end of three days ; aKoralog rjXQtv, he came in the dark. 
The same are %0t?6f, fxtaovvKrioQ, TravrjixipLog, o\piog, lapivog ; the words denoting 
any place, ^^r. ^r. 60£(Triot kZ,6ni.Ba, near the hearth; OaXdaaiog, OvpaXog, usTBojpog, 
TrXdyiog, vTrepwovTiog. 

4. Whenever a compar. refers to another quahty of the same 
object, the latter, as in Latin, is not in the positive, but hke- 
wise in the compar., eor. gr. Eurip. Med. 490. Trpodvfiog paXkov 
rj aocpwripa. Plato Rep. III. p. 409. aoipwrepog rj afiaOicrrepog 
SoKU eivai ', 

§ 124.-0/ the Articulus Prapositivus. 

1. The art. prcepos. being originally a pronoun demonst., de- 
monstrates or points out an object generally known, or which 
has been already mentioned in the context, whether of a con- 
crete or of an abstract nature. Hence it points either to a 
definite individual, in distinguishing it from among the rest, or 
it points to the species, which latter the speaker presupposes to 
be a general idea, comprising a number of individuals, ex. gr, 
ot 0£oi iKoXaaav Trjv tov avSpbg v(5pLv — at r]Sovai irdOovcn Trjv 
ipv)(r}v jurj <r(v(l)poV£iv — 6 l\i(j)ag rov SpaKOvra oppiodd. 

2. The indefinite art. of modern languages is never ex- 
pressed in Greek, but when an indefinite object is distinctly 
to be denoted as an individual object, in which case the py^o- 
noun Tig, r\, supplies our article indefinite, ex. gr. 'linrog areKS 
\ayibv, a mare brought forth a hare; yvvi) Tig opviv ax^v, a 
woman had a hen. 

3. Proper names, according to their nature, omit the art. 



328 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

It is however used, either when the name has been already 
mentioned, or when it is a generally known one, so that the 
art, conveys in some measure the idea of " that individual of 
whom we have already spoken/^ or " that individual with whom 
we are all acquainted/' But the art. is usually omitted in 
mentioning any person for the first time in a narration, and it 
is frequently omitted when there is any nearer designation fol- 
lowing with the art., ex. gr., '^wK.^arnQ 6 (piXoGocpog, Upo^tvog 
6 BokLtioc;, he from Bceotia; but Qovkv^i^^q ' Adr]vdioc, Th., an 
Athenian. (Compare Krliger on Xen. An. 6, 2, 13.) The names 
of rivers are usually placed between the art. and the subst. 
TTOTafjLog ; 6 Evf^parrjc TTorafiog ; but ^eXivovg iroTafxog signifies 
a river called Selinus. 

Obs. 1. Languages differ in the use of the article definite. The Greek in parti- 
cular has it before several pronouns, where the English and German languages omit 
it, or even use the article indefinite. For instance, after a general description, the 
Greek says, 6 towvtoq avrjp ovk dv jxoi apsffKOi : this expression then includes all 
such, whilst we should say, such a man cannot please me. When prefixed to an inter- 
rogative, the article denotes that the answer is expected to he a definite object, ex. 
gr. TO TToXov ; but which ? to. irola ravra ; which do you mean ? In confidential con- 
versation we even meet with 7rao-%£t St Oavixaarov' to tl ; something wonderful hap- 
pens to him. And that is — what ? 

06s. 2. The art. is essential in Greek with the pronouns possessine, for ex. gr. (Jog 
dovXoQ (as well as SovXog aov) can signify only, a slave of thee ; but 6 ahg dovXog 
(as well as 6 dovXog aov) means thy slate. (Compare § 127, 7-) On the art. before 
the part, see § 1 44. 

Obs. 3. The remaining instances, where the Greek has the art. proepos. instead of 
our aHicle indefinite '^ , msiy he reduced to the following two principal cases: L) 
When an object, which in particular instances is or may be an indefinite one, is con- 
sidered in the absti-act or in general, and consequently appears as definite. We do 
the same, for instance, in comparisons : we may say, " He is like the physician, who 
should visit the sick without knowing any thing of physic." (Xen. (Ec. 15, 7-) 
Again, when an indefinite object becomes a definite one in a particular relation, or 
occupies a definite place, we say, " The matter between you and me is still so 
doubtful, that we want a man to decide it ;" but the Gx'eek has, wots tov diaKpi- 
vovvTog iTL Sti, we want the man who will decide it, viz. the third man in this particu- 
lar relation, who &c.2 2.) On relating a current story, which is repeated as being 
well known, and having been frequently told, ex. gr. Plato Charm. 7. ^o(p(oTaTog 6 
KpiTiag, og tiinv, kiri tov kuXov Xiyojv TraiSbg, Critias is very wise, who {according to 
the well-known story) said in reference to a beautiful boy . 

Obs. 4. The Greek prose- writers frequently omit the art. where we should use it, 
and where, according to the rule, it ought to be used even in Gi-eek. But such cases 
are difficult to be brought under strict rules, as a great latitude was granted to the 
Greek writer on such points, and the addition of the art. therefore is not to be con- 
sidered entirely wrong. Thus the art. is frequently omitted : 1.) in expressing gene- 

^ See Wolf. adBeiz. de Accent. ^6. Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 7. 
2 In the passage which is quoted, Plato Phcedr. 4. t(^ voaovvTi ought, I think, to 
be actually taken in a definite sense, as Socrates is cleax'ly meaning himself. 



SYNTAX. 329 

ral ideas ; ex. gr. Plato de LL. 5. Qtiov ydp ayaQov ttov rifxi]. Charmid. 18. ovk 
dpa (Tdj^poavvT] av t'ir] aidoJQ. Thecet. 23. aiaOrjcng, (pyg, k7naTr]iir\ : 2.) before 
words whose general and abstract nature has become sufficiently definite and par- 
ticularised by the context ; ex. gr. TroXtg, fxriTrjp, 7rar>}p, yovtlg, Traig, Qtbg, and 
others; principally in their oblique cases; and 3.) before such nppellatices,v/hich. 
have some similitude with proper names, as 7]\iog, aeXrjvr], yrj, OdXafxaa, oipavbg, 
^aatXiiig, king of Persia; see Heind. ad Plat. Eiithyd. 8. Phcedo 17 and 108. 

§125. 

1. The art. is frequently separated from its subst., not only 
through the adj\ (6 kqXoi; ttolq — ol vTrapxovTsg vofioi, the existing 
laws,) but also through other more particular modifications of 
the subst., ex. gr, Ifxifivriro rf/c Iv jiavia BiaTpijdrjg, he i^emembei^ed 
the time spent in madness, in which case a participle as yevojuivt} 
and the like may often be mentally supplied ; ex. gr. 77 wpog 
FaXarag fiaxVi t^^^ battle against the Gauls ; r} irplv ap^ai avrov 
apBTrj, the virtue which he showed before he reigned (Xen. Ages. 
1, 5). 

Ohs. 1. The lonians even insert the pronoun rig between the gen. dependent on it 
and its art., ex. gr. tCjv rig Upsojv, instead of tu>v itps^v rig. 

2. If the intercalated modification begins with the art. there 
may be two or three ai'ticles one after the other, provided they 
differ in their forms from each other, ex. gr. to rfjc aperrig 
KoXXog, the beauty of virtue, 6 ra Trig iroXeoog Trpdyiaara irpdr- 
Tii)v, he who manages the affairs of the state, rov ro rrig 'AOrjvag 
ayaXjua Ipyaadfievov, — 'ivoxpg £otw ra> rfjg tu)v eXevOEptjjv (pOo' 
pag voiuicl). 

3. But the modifications of the subst. may also come after 
for emphasis or distinctness, in which case the art. must be 
repeated; ex. gr. rov Tralda rov (tov, thy son, 6 ^^iXiapxog o rag 
ayyeXtag elaKOjuiZwv, the military tribune who has to bring in the 
reports. It may, however, be omitted in the first place, ex. gr. 
(TvvsijUL avdpwiroig rolg ayaOoig. 

Obs. 2. The gen. partitive can never be intercalated in that way, nor, when placed 
after the governing noun, can the art. of the latter be repeated before the gen. part. 
The only exception to this rule is, where several other words are placed between the 
art. and the gen. part. ; ex. gr. Thuc. VI. 102. 01 Trpbg rr^v ttoXiv avrwv to TrpCJTov 
KaratpvyovTig, where avTuiv depends upon 01 KuraipvyovTeg. The pronoun demonst. 
is intercalated in an analogous manner in many passages ; as for instance in Xen. 
Anab. VI. 2, 6. r) arevij avTt] 6S6g. The repetition of the article is necessary with 
the part., because the proposition would else constitute that particular construction 
of the part., which is so usual in the Greek language, and of which we treat below, 
§144. 

Obs. 3. When the adj. without an art. stands close to a subst., which has the art., 



330 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

without, however, coming between the two, the adj. stands in the place of an acces- 
sory proposition, in which it would be the predicate, ex. gr. ijdtro IttI TzXovaioig toTq 
TToXiraig does not mean, he rejoiced at the toealthy citizens, but, he rejoiced at his citi- 
zens when they were, or, as far as they were, wealthy ; Itt' uk^oiq toIq bpsaiv, on the 
mountains, where they are the highest, i. e. on the top of the mountains ; o\r]v Trjv vvKra, 
the ichole night ; 6'%£i tov TrkXtKvv b^vrarov, which we can only translate by, he has 
a very sharp axe, but the exact idea is, the axe which he has (and ought to have for the 
undertaking) is very sharp. 

4. When the subst, is understood from the context, it is 
commonly omitted, and the art. stands alone before the modi- 
fications, ecc. gr, 6 '^fjLog narrip /cat 6 rov <^iAou {my father and 
THAT of my ftiend). 

5. There are certain customary omissions in such cases, (as 
above, § 123, 3. with the adj.) ex, gr. vlog, iralg, Ovyarrjp, 
'AXiKavSpog 6 ^lXlttitov, or also alone : 6 Sw^joovto-Kou, the son 
of Soph., i. e. Socrates. 

X'^9^3 7^' ^h TYjv (piXiinrov, into the country of Philippus, 

oiKog or olKia' (more usual without any art., see § 133. 
Obs. 9. 147. Obs. 5.) dg UXarwvog, into the house of I 
Plato ; ug aSou, into the Hades. 

av6p(i)7roL' OL Iv aarei, the inhabitants ; ot Kar Ijulb, my con- 
temporaries. The same with regard to friends or rela- 
tions : ot irepL or aju^L riva, (see § 150.) ot (tvv tivl, &c. 

Xprijuara or Trpciy juara* ra rrig iroX^wg, the affairs of the 
town ; ra (or to) rrig aperrig, that which relates to virtue. 
Hence arises a circumlocution of the simple subst. 
See § 128. Obs. 1. and 2. 

Tip-ipa" 7\ iTTiovcra, the following day. 

6. As any indeclinable modification may be declined with 
the help of the article, adverbs are converted into adj. by the 
mere addition of the art., ex. gr. fxtTa^v, between, 6 fxeTa^if 
TOTTog, the intermediate place, the place situated between ; wiXag, 
near, al iriXag KWfxai^ the neighbouring villages, ot roTh avOpwTroi, 
ol TToXaL 0-000/ avBpeg, 17 avM iroXig, the upper town, elg rov 
avwraTU) tottov, (see § 115, 6.) 77 t^at^vrjc juerdtrTaaig, the sudden 
removal, &c.^ Under this head comes also 77 ov didXvaig, and 
the like, see below, § 148. Obs. 3. Or the adverb comes after, 
and the art. is repeated : "Orav '^yeip7](j9e ek rrig afieXdag Tavrrtg 
Trig dyav, when you awake from this excessive remissness. 

7. If the subst. being sufficiently known from the context or 

^ The Latin language, not having any art., must resort to a kind of juxtaposition 
to use such expressions, and that only in comedy, heri semper lenitas, Terentius. 



SYNTAX. 331 

idea itself^ be altogether omitted, the adv. assumes the appear- 
ance of a subst., ex. gr. avQLov, to-morroiv, omitting the word 
?7/.(€po, day, gives 77 avQLOv, the morrow ; 77 AvStcrrt, the Lydian 
music {apiuovla being understood) ; ol tots, the men of that time ; 
£g Tov7ri(7(s), (for to biriaio, with the probable omission of luepog,) 
backwards, towards the hind part ; Anacreon has, To G{\\x^pov 
juiXei fjLoi, I care only for to-day, i. e. for ivhat is to-day, what 
occurs to-day ; for it is not always possible to supply a definite 
subst. Avhen the art. is neut., nor is there any occasion to supply 
a subst. 

8. On the other hand, Infinitives, and any word or phrase 
considered in itself as an object, become actual substantives by 
the art. being prefixed : 

1.) Infinitives, ex, gr. to irpaTTuv, the acting, being en- 
gaged in business, to kukC^q Xiyeiv, the evil-speaking, 
backbiting, ri^o/iai r<^ TrepiiraTdv, I find pleasure in walk- 
ing. The use of the infin. as a subst. is very extensive in 
Greek, as will be seen § 140. 

2.) Any word or phrase, considered in itself as an object, 
ex. gr. to Xejlo, i. e. the word Xiyai. — Plato Protag. 345. 
JlSjOt kavToi) XtjSL TOVTO TO tKwv. Phccdr. 129. KaTa\prj- 
aaaOuL Set avTov to, UCjq S' clv kycj Toioads toiwSe k7ra\i:L- 
prjcra, he must make use of this speech, Hoiv could I have 
attacked such a one ! 

9. The short particles, as Si, t\, yl, Si), yap, pev, julv dri, toivvv, 
are usually placed between the art. and the subst. or its repre- 
sentative : 6 yap avOpioiTog, 77 plv yap texvy], &c. 

06s. 4. Any word denoting an object is generally considei-ed as of the neuL gen- 
der ; but in grammar it is customary to give to every word the gender belonging to 
the denomination of that part of speech, ex.gr. as we say r] avTuiwu'ia, (the pronoun,) 
we also say 7) syuj, (the lyronoun lyoj,) and 6 £7r6i, because of 6 (Tvvdiafxog {conjunction). 

Obs. 5. There is, however, another peculiarity to be attended to. The article to 
with its accompaniment, omitting any connexion, becomes adterhial, ex. gr. to 
TsXevTalov, finally, Tavvv, (properly to. vvv.) now, to cltto Tovde, hencefoHh (com- 
pare below the accus. § 131, 8). — See about isvai tov Trpocrw, the Note to § 132, 4, 
2. c, and about some other expressions with the art. to or to., below the adj. neut. 
§ 128. and the accus. § 131. 

Obs. 6. In an elliptical sentence the article sometimes stands even before a pro- 
noun relative, ex.gr. To 6fj.oioj6sv Trpbg to (^ ojixoiwOt], (Plato Hep.dlO.) the thing com- 
pared contrasted icith that to which it is compared, where IkeTvo might have been used 
instead of to : Ovliv tu>v oaa ai(rxvvr]v sort (pspovTa (Herod. 3, 133) : Tolg o'loiq 
y'lfilv xaXf/r;) 77 STjfxoKpaTia, to men like us (compare below, § 143, 6.) a democracy is 
prejudicial (Xen. Hist. Gr. 2, 3, 17) : T^fjg {(jvvovaiag) oOev av (ppovinwraTog tir}, 
(Plato Phcedr. 34.) 76 waTrep Kupvov, the walnut-like thing {Pollux 7, 75) ; and the 



332 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

same before other words connected with a subsequent proposition, ex. gr. To ttote 
del Xlyciv didacTKs. fis, literally, the when one ought to speak teach me, i. e. teach me when 
it is proper to speak ; "Ev In Xi'nrBTai, to r)v 7rei<T(jjfiev vixclq, i. e. a case still remains, 
this, namely, if we could persuade you (Plato Rep. 1. p. 327). 

§ 126. — 6, 7], TO, as Pronoun Demonstr, and og, rj, 6, 

1. Both the ayiic. prapos. 6, 17, ro, and the artic. postpos. og, 
rj, o, were demonstrative pronouns in the primitive language 
instead of ovTog or Ikslvoq. When the language became 
polished, and more copious, their use was more confined, but 
even in common prose both retained in several definite in- 
stances the power of a real demonstrative pronoun. 

2. They were most frequently used in this sense on making 
a division and distinction ; in that case 6 filv comes first, and 
then 6 §£ follows once or several times, properly only in speak- 
ing of definite objects, this — that — ; but also of indefinite ones 
— the one — the other — one more, and so through all genders and 
numbers ; ex, gr. Tov ^xlv Irijua, tov Se ou, this (man) he esteemed, 
that not ; To /xfv yap dvor^rov, to ds fxaviKov, one is a silly trick, 
the other a mad one; Twv ttoXe^iwv, (or ol TroXijuLioi,) ol /mev 
WavfiaZov TO. yiyvojueva, ol S' i/Bowv, 01 §£ (TwedKEvaZovTO, some 
of the enemies were astonished at what happened, others screamed, 
others prepared for their retreat ; Twv ^wwv to. julv ex^i 7roSac» 
TO. S' karlv diro^a : — Kpacrcrov koXCjq TTEveaOat rj KUKtog ttXovtu.v' 
TO fJLEv yap eXeov, to S' ItrLTLfi^aLv (pipEi : — Isocrates says of the 
Athenians, who had sent out colonies, because their country 
was over-peopled, that in this way they, "Eo-oxrav afK^oTEpovg, 
KOI Tovg (XKoXovOrjcravTag Ka\ Tovg virojuisivavTag' ToXg fxlv yap 
LKavyjv Trjv oikol \u)pav KaTaXiirov, Tolg §£ TrXftw rf)c v7rap\ov(Tr)g 
EiropKTav. — We find in the same manner, ol fiev avTCjv — ol de, 
some of than — others — . See about 6 piiv, 6 S' ov, § 149. in juiv. 

3. The genuine Attics seldom use the artic. postpos. in this 
way, (og filv, og ^l, &c. — a filv, a §£, &c.) but later writers, like 
Plutarch, very frequently. 

Obs. 1. There is an instance in Demosth. ^?-o Cor. 248. Reiske, UoXeig 'EWtjvi- 
Sag, dg fiev dvaipCJv, tig dg dk rovg (pvyddag KaTdyo)v, destroying some Greek cities, 
bringing the exiles back to others. 

4. In a narrative, 6, 17, to, frequently stands but once with ^l 
in reference to an object already named, ex. gr. 6 Sh elite, but 
this one said ; ti)v ^e aVoxwpfj^rai, (the accus. with the infin.) that 
this (female) then went away. 



SYNTAX. 333 

5. When the question is of persons as subjects or agents, 
such a proposition may also be connected with kol, in which 
case the noiiiin. always has the form of the aiiic. postpos. og, rj, 
o'l, at : — but the accus. (with the infin.) takes the form of the 
artic. prapos. rov, &c. ex.gr. Kat oc, aKOvaag ravra, £W(T£v avrov 
f »c Trig ra^ewg, the other, having heard this, pushed him out of the 
rank, Kal ol SiaXvOivrag, latj^aivov Ig rag vrjag, Herod. Kat tov 
KEXevaaL Sou y at, and the other ordered it to be given to him. 

06s. 2. Hither belong also the expressions used in relating a conversation: ?] h' oq, 
said he, (see § 109. p. 220.) and the elliptic Kai og, (viz. e<pr],) on xcldch the other said. 

Obs. 3. When there is a. prep, in the sentence, jxev and ^k frequently come imme- 
diately after it, ex. gr. 'Ev ixkv toIq (rvficpcovovfisv, Iv dk rolg ov, on some points ice 
agree, on others not ; Isocr. Paneg. 41. Big [xkv rovg vfSpiZovreg, rolg dk dovXevovrsg. 
See Reiz. de Accent. 13, 69. 

Obs. 4. The distinctions, however, are not always so marked and so correspond- 
ing as in the preceding examples ; ex. gr. oi ixkv is frequently followed in the next 
proposition by Tivkg dk, Ivioi Sk, or by a name or any other designation. 

Obs. 5. From the ancient siguif. of the art. the expressions rbv kul tov, to. Kai 
TO., and the like, are derived ; they correspond with the English this and that, and 
are particularly frequent in Demosth. 

Obs. 6. The ancient signif. of the art. accounts like'wise for the poetical dat. rtp 
adverbially used, therefore, on that account, II. e. 815. Ttyi/wcrKw as, 9sa, — T^ roi 
'7rpO(l)povE(i)g spku) eTTog, tlierefore I icill candidly tell you, which may also be expressed 
by the accus. (compare below, § 131, 7-) H- 7- 176. 'AWd ray* ovk kykvovro, to 
Kal KXa'iovcra Tsrijica, therefore am I melting in tears. 

Obs. 7. But the use of both articles as demonstrative pronouns is far more general 
in poetry, especially in Epic poetry, and 6, t/, to, in Homer, (excepting the instances 
in which to, tov, &c. stand for o, ov, &c. according to § 75. Obs. 2.) are almost every 
where to be taken in this sense. To be convinced of this, we need only to look at 
the following passages, II. a. 340. L 399. e. 715. ?. 407- Od. e. 106., which, read 
superficially, appear to have the usual prosaic art. ; but the attentive reader, who 
does not know of any such art. in Homer, very soon perceives from the context that 
in all these passages, and many similar, it is the demonstrative pronoun ; the demon- 
strative power of which, however, may be dispensed with here, and is therefore weak- 
ened. In but few passages this little word denotes an object merely as well known 
and distinguished, or as very much present to the mind of the poet, or where the 
demonstrative power really is so weakened, that its dwindling into the true Attic 
art. becomes obvious {II. a. 167- r). 412. ju. 289). — But we must be particularly on 
our guard against taking this form for the art., when it is separated from the subst. 
by the verb and the whole proposition, as, *H fikv ao Sjg eiTTova a.7rs(3r] Tvodag ojKsa 
""Ipig : for here t) as a demonstrative pronoun is to be rendered by she, whose name is 
mentioned after in the poetical way, thus she spoke, and departed, the sicift-footed Iris. 
This is proved by those passages in which the real pronoun ol {to him) is followed 
in the same way by the suhst., ex. gr. Od. v. 106. — Thus even in Homer this subst. 
nature of 6, r}, to, apparently raises an adj. to a noiin subst., ex. gr. II. p. 80. tov 
dpiffTov, the bravest, a. 33. 6 y'spujv, the old {man), and frequently oi aXXoi, ToXXa. 
In all these instances 6, rj, to, as subst. has its adj. along with it, and the sense pro- 
perly is, him the bravest, he the old {man), those, the others, that, the other. But here 
too the pronoun demonstrative, as it may be dispensed with, is often weakened, and 
its dwindling into the usual ai-ticle very evident. 



334 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



§ 127. — Pronouns — Adj. ttciq. 

1. a.) ^\\Q pronouns demonstrative ovtoq and oSs are sometimes 
employed instead of adverbs of place ; ex. gr. Plato Rep. 1. (in 
the beginning,) 'Hpo/xr]v oirov urj, ovrog e(j)Y}y ottkjOev 7rpo(Tep)(^Erai, 
I asked where he was ; there he comeSy said the other ^ behind you. 
The demonstrative ode is chiefly used in this manner by poets, 
[Od. a. 185. X- 367.) and in particular very frequently by tragic 
poets (Schaef. Meletem. 77). 

b.) ovTog and ode (and the adverbs ovtwq and o)de) differ 
from each other in so far as ovrog refers^ though with 
some exceptions, to the antecedent, and ode to the sub- 
sequent words in a sentence; ovtoq is in good prose 
employed at the beginning of a sentence which is intro- 
duced by a pron. relative. 

c.) The pronouns demonst. are frequently omitted before the 
pronouns relative, as in Latin, ex. gr, [ravTo) a <jv eJireg, 
and in the locutions crrjfieXov de' reKjurfpiov de, (see § 151 
towards the end,) eariv ot — § 150. 

2. The three principal signif. of the pronoun avTog (§ 74, 2.) 
must be carefully discriminated. 

I. It signifies self, 

a. when it belongs to another noun, so as to be in appo- 
sition with it, that is to say, either behind it, or even 
before the article, ex. gr. MaWov tovto (pof^ovjuat rj rov 
Oavarov avrov, I fear this more than death itself ; Avtov 
Tov jdaaiXea diroKreXvaL EjSovXsro, he wanted to put to death 
the king himself. 

b. when, the pronoun personal being omitted as sufficiently 
known from the context, it stands for / myself, he him- 
self. In that case it is chiefly in the nomin.^ ex. gr. 
avTog t^y\, he himself said it ; irapeyev6}.iy]v avrog, I rnyself 
got there ; — it is used in the oblique cases only, when 
the sentence begins with them, ex. gr. avrbv yap eldov, 
for I saw him himself. 

II. It is employed instead of the pronoun personal of the 
3 pers., but merely in the oblique cases, as in English him, her, 
it^ to him, &c. (in Latin eum^ &c.) In this sense it can come 
only after other words of the sentence or proposition, ex. gr, 
td(i)Kev avTolg to irvp, he gave fire to them ; ov\ kopaKag avrov ; 
have you not seen him ? To dipag Ahnri tdwKev, eKeTvog de avro 



SYNTAX. 335 

KaOr}\(jj(TEv, he gave the skin to jEetes, but the latter nailed it up, 
— See also 7. 

III. It means the same, when it is immediately preceded by 
the article ; ex. gr. 6 avToq avrip, the same man ; iKiX^vaE. to avro 
(or ravTo) TToisiv, he ordered him to do the same. (See its con- 
struction with the dat. below § 133, 2.) 

Obs. 1. Hence it follows that the nomin. avTog, Sec. never signifies he alone, &c. 
But under the second head must also be ranked those instances, in which the sub- 
ject, according to the Greek construction, is stated in an oblique case, especially in 
the gen. absolute^ and with an infin. in the accus. ; the oblique cases of avrug must 
then be rendered by he, she, it, ex. gr. sTriKSin'svujv S' avrwv, but as they rushed in ; 
nerd ravra, cnrikQtiv avrbv, that after this he departed ; Soph. Philoct. 777- (pray) 
firj (Toi yivkaBai TToXvTrova avra, (viz. to. To^a, the bow,) that it be not troublesome to 
you. 

Obs. 2. The Epic poets also employ avrbg without the article, for 6 avTog : and 
sometimes it is used even in prose for fxovog, alone, ex.gr. avroi yap kaixtv,for ice are 
alone ; the English we are by ourselves ; avrd to. 7rp6 twv TrodCov bpq.v, to observe only 
what is before your feet, Xenoph. Laced. 3, 5. 

3. The pronoun avroc; loses its emphasis in the reflective pro- 
nouns IfjLcwTov, (jEavTov, &c. (§ 74, 3) : avrov cte means thyself, 
but (TeavTov simply thee as the reflective pronoun, (which, how- 
ever, in English is expressed with self,) ex. gr. WiZe (javrov (in 
French barely accoutume-toi, but in English accustom thyself). 
Thus the pronoun reflective of the 3 pers. {eavrov or avrov) 
answers to the Latin sui, sibi, se, and, like this, it is also used 
when it refers to the first subject of two connected propositions, 
where we still say hi7n in English ; ex. gr. 'NojluZel rovg TroXirag 
vTTrjpETEtv faurw, he thinks his felloiv citizens are subject to him. 
But in this last case it may also be simply avrov or t (ou, &c. 
(T(ptLg, Gcfiag, &c. See Obs. 3). 

Obs. 3. The Attics use e, &c. in this combination chiefly 1.) when there is no 
emphasis, and when it would be the enclitic jus in the 1 pers., Plato Eep. 1. (init.) 
Karidujv rifxag, 6 IloXsfiapxog lickXtvcre Spafiovra tov 7ra78a TTipijxtXvai k KeXsvcrai, 
he bid the slave tell us to wait for him ; in the same way we have ol, Xen. Anab. 3, 1, 
5. Plato Phcedo p. 117. Protag. 316. acpiaiv, Xenoph. Hell. 5, 4, 11. &c. But 2.) 
when, in a speech alluded to in sermone obliquo, the speaker himself is mentioned, 
this pronoun is frequently used in opposite propositions and the like, entirely as tfxL 
See, for instance, Plato Rep. 10. p. 617. where acpag, ov, e, occur in this way. — The 
sing, of this form is altogether very rare with the Attic writers, but the pi. was 
familiar to them both ways ; they have even the nomin. (J<png, when a quoted speech 
or opinion, the speakers, or those who give their opinion, are themselves the 
subject, ex.gr. ^en. Anab. T, 5, 5. Asyeiv sKsXevov, on ov^ev av tjttop (T^etg 
dyciyouv rr/v (Trparidv, they bid them say that they would lead the army on equally well. 
In this case avroi might be used, but it would rather signify they themselves : in the 
sing., however, nothing but avrbg can be used in this ease both for he and he himself. 
See about the nomin. i the Note to § 72, 3. 

Obs. 4. Examples of kavrbv or avrbv thus employed are found in Isocr. Paneg. 12. 



336 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Oi fiev (ol 9eaTai) orav t^axri Toiig dQXrjrdQ lavrtxiv 'ivtKa irovovvTaQ, where kavrCjv 
refers to the spectators, to which corresponds exactly in the next following sentence, 
Oi ^k (oi ddXriTal) orav kvOvfjirjOioaiv, on Travreg sttI tt'jv (xcperspav 6eu)piav rjKovcriv 
— (T^srlpav, (formed of the simple 'i, ocpslg,) which refers to the combatants : again in 
Eurip. Hipp. 977- Xenoph. Mem. 1, 2,52. Plato Phcedr. 259. But in many 
instances of this kind avTov may also be used, in which case the proposition is stated 
by the writer as his own view of the subject. See Exc. X. ad Demosth. Mid. 

Ohs. 5. The reflective pronouns of the 3 pers. have sometimes the power of a gene- 
ral re^ective pronoun, which stands also for the 1 and 2 pers., as tavrov, avTov, for 
knavTov and (ravrov. This has been perfectly ascertained and is acknowledged by 
the ancient grammarians, (see Timseus with the Note of Ruhnken, p. 92.) and ex- 
tends likewise to prose ; but the passages occurring in prose writers are still open 
to critical examination. The Attic senarius is an instance in point, ex. gr. Soph. 
(Ed. T. 138. 

'Ytt^P yap ovxi tmv dTrwrgpo) (pikiav, 
'AW avTOQ avrov, rovr aTTOCKf^w ixvaog, 
for the sake of myself , for my sake. Other poets go still further ; not only use (T(p8Ttpog 
without any distinction of pers. or number in the sense of one's own, but also e, ol, 
abg, ApoU. partly (hke the Latin se) for the pi., and partly as a, pronoun reflective of 
the 1 and 2 pers. (see Wolf. Proleg. ad Hom. 247.) 

Obs. 6. The genitives of the proyioun avrbg are added, corresponding with the Latin 
usage, to the pronouns possessive, for the purpose of strengthening the power of the 
latter ; in English we say: my own, &c.: 

avTutv yap <j<psT'epy(nv dracOaXiytriv oXovto, sua ipsorum temeritate perierunt. 
Hom. Od. a. 7- 
We meet with this addition less frequently in prose, on account of the pronouns 
possessive (see below 7) being usually rendered by the pronouns personal. The 
gen. of a subst. instead of avrov, &c. may be also joined to the pron. possessive, ex.gr. 
iiapTrd^ovcFi rd lfx,d, tov KaKoSaiixovog. 

4. The pronoun indefinite Ag is also used for the German 
man, French on, English one, they, people, ex. gr. "AvOpwirov 
avaLdiarepov ovk av rig fvpot, one cannot find a more impudent man; 
even it refers to a whole assembly^ ex. gr. "RByi rig ETridEiKvvru) 
eavrov, now one must distinguish one's self {every one of you 
must distinguish himself). See about the neut. r\, § 150. The 
pronoun inteiTog. rig, ri, is also used as in English for an in- 
direct interrogation : ripwra fit rig Eir}v, he asked me who / was. 

Obs. 7. Hence rig, ri, is likewise employed with some vei-bs denoting merely in- 
quiry or investigation^ instead of oarig, o ti, Xen. Anab. 3, 3, 18. "Hv ovv eTnaKexpdJ- 
fxeOuf Tivsg avrojv nsTravrat (T(pivd6vag, if we now inquire or examine wJiich of them have 
slings. Compare § 139, H. 2. 

5. "AXAoc without any article is the Latin alius, ' another ;' 
erspog without the article is the same, but denotes a stronger 
difference, but 6 arepog always makes a distinction only between 
two objects; it is the Latin alter, 'the other,' see § 78, 4. In 
the pi. aWoi means others, and ol aXXoi the others, ' ceteri ;' ol 
erepoi supposes a more distinct separation into two parts, the 
other party. The sing. 6 aXXog denotes a whole exclusively and 
in opposition to a definite part : t} aXXr} x^P«» ^^^ whole remain- 



SYNTAX. 337 

ing countrtj, the rest of the country, all the other parts of the 
country. 

6. Most pronouns and the adj, ttSc and arrac come either 
before the article or after the subst.^ ex.gr, tovtwv rwv avdoCov, 
of these men ; 6 avrip ovtoq, this man ; diKr]v enve ravTrjv, he suf- 
fered this punishment ; Travreg ol "EXXr}veg, all the Greeks ; tm 

^ijjuio awavTi, to the ivhole people. But seldom and rather em- 
phatically iraq is between the article and subst. : ol iravT^g j3o£c t£ 
Ka\ 'iiriroi. Plato. When irag is without an article in the sing., it 
is commonly used for EicaaTog, ex.gr. irag avrip, (the French tout 
homme^ every man. 

Obs. 8. Several adjectives, as oXog, justrog, e(r')(aTog, uKpog, ijfiKTvg, take the same 
position, though with a difference of signification, since, for instance, sffxdTrj yj 
vfj(yog, means, the island {at its extreme point), the end of the island ; hut r} k(Tx,a.Tr] 
vfjaog, the {extreme) most distant island (in speaking of several islands), ev [xsay Ty 
dyop^, in medio foro, but to fisaov (TTLipog, (Xen. Anah. I. 8, 13.) the inmost division 
of troops. 

Obs. 9. The aH., however, must he omitted with all pronouns enumerated in text 
C, if they be not connected in an adjective signification with their substantive, but 
are referred to by the subst. as by a predicate. Thus, for instance, alrlai [xev avrai 
i^Gav, these icere the reasons (but avrai ai aiTtai, these reasons) ; tovti}) TrapadeiyfjiaTi 
Xpwvrai, this they quote as an example. Compare Dawes' 3Iisc., p. 300, Reisig. 
Conj., p. 177> &c. Real exceptions to this rule are only those instances in which 
substantives are added to the above-mentioned pronouns, which, when taken even 
in a definite sense, do not require the art., ex. gr. ; oot 'ApiaTupxog avrbg jSaaikevg, 
Trdvreg dvOpiiJTTOL, i. e. all icho are called men. 

7. The pronouns possessive are frequently rendered by the 
genitives of the pron. personal or reflexive. The usage of 
speech is the following : 

1.) Instead of the pron. poss. of the 1 and 2 pers. sing., the 
enclitical forms fxov and aov are used, and they are either put 
before the art. or after the subst. ; hence niov, aov 6 (jyiXog or 6 
(piXog jULOv, GOV ; or the pron. reflex, liuavrov, (Tsavrov, are employed 
for the sake of emphasis, and they are placed either between the 
art. and the subst. or after the subst., the art. being repeated. 
Hence 6 l/iiavTov, (jsavTov (piXog, or 6 (piXog 6 sjULavrov, cr. 

2.) Instead of the third pers. of the pron. poss., which is 
scarcely ever employed in prose, the gen. avrov, rig, ahrCyv are 
used, and these again either before the art. or after the subst., 
if the words signifying possession do not refer to a subject con- 
tained in the principal proposition ; hence ahrov, &c. 6 0tXoc or 
6 (piXog avTOv, &c. The pron. reflex, kavrov, rjg, aavrCov, is used 
(taking the same position as has been pointed out in number 
1. b.) if the word signifying possession refers to the subject of 



338 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

the principal proposition; hence 6 kavrov, &c. ^tXoc and 6 (piXog 
6 kavTov, &c. 

3.) The first and second pers. plur. of the pron. poss. are by 
far more usual than the circumlocution with rt/niov and vjjliov. 

Obs. 10. This is the usage constantly observed in Attic prose ; for examples see 
Rost's Grammar, § 99. The pron. poss. lubg, cog, &c. are used like adject. ; hence 
okfibQ (piXoQ or 6 (piXoQ 6 sfiog. That avrov, auTwv, may be employed instead of the 
pron. reflex, iavrov, &c. follows from text 3. 

8. With words expressive of constantly relative ideas, as a 
son, father, friend, master, the hand, foot, &c. the pron. poss. is 
never used, but supplied by the art. alone. 

See about the premised enclitic gen. fxov, aov, instead of the 
Dat. commodi, § 133. Obs, 5. 

§128. — Of the Neuter Adjective, 

1. The neuter of all kinds of adj. is used alone without a subst, 
or even as a subst. for any indefinite or vague object, and in 
many instances it is, as in Latin, in the pi. when we should use 
the sing. : eiirs ravra, he said this ; to. koXo. [the beauty, the beau- 
tiful, viz. all which is beautiful) ; ovde ra dvajKoia dvvavrai 
TropiZsiv, they cannot even procure the needful [the necessary 
things). Hence, ra Ifxa, for instance, signifies not only my 
effects, but also more indefinitely whatever concerns myself. 

2. The neuter in the sing, rather denotes the abstract idea of 
objects, ex. gr. to koXov, the beauty {the beautiful abstractedly 
considered in itself) ; to Quov, the divinity {any divine nature, 
of which we have but an obscure notion) ; to Tr\g yvvaiKog SovXov 
KoX OspairevTiKov, the slavish and submissive condition of women. 
Whence also the neuter of a part, is employed as an abstractum, 
ex. gr. to (7vyKEX(i)pr]Kog, the yielding, i. e. an indulgent, yielding 
disposition. 

Obs. 1. The neuter of the article alone with the gen. is still more indefinite ; it 
denotes a mere reference, derivation, and the like : To Sk rwv X|0'/i^«''wv fidXicTTa 
TToOtlre aKovaai, Troaa Kai ttoOsv larai, with respect to the money, you are particularly 
anxious to hear how much it is, and whence it is to come ; Demosth. Td rwv OeuJv 
<j)'Bptiv dii, we must bear what comes from the gods. 

Obs. 2. Hence comes a particular circumlocution peculiar to the Attics, that of 
both TO and ra with the gen., which will best appear from examples. Thus they 
often say ra rrjg rvx^g, when we should simply SKy fortune ; Demosth. 01. 1. Tapdr- 
r£i avTov TO. tCjv QittuXCjv, the ThessaJians (whom he distrusts) fill him with care; rd 
tS)v (3ap[3dpojv eaTiv dTriara (pvaei, barbarians are naturally distrustful ; to rrjg TroXeujg 
ysvvalov Kai IXtvOspov acrn, the nature of the state is something noble and free, Plato, 
Menex. 17 ; and on describing a beautiful place, Trdvrcjp de KOfxtporaTOV to rrjg TrSag, 
but the most beautiful of all is the grass, Plato Phcedr. — Hence the neuter of the 



SYNTAX. 339 

pronoun possessive often serves in this manner for the pronoun personal : to sfxov for 
kyoj, properly tchat concerns me, my person. 

Obs. 3. The Greeks can also use wdi'va, (like the French their tout, in tout court, 
tout fait,) fov every one ; ex.gr. Eurip. Tuiv (5ap(3ap(xjv yap dovXa jravra Tr\i)v evbg, 
among the barbarians all are slaves (in French tout est esclave) except one, i. e. to. tuiv 
(iaplSdptiJv TTOLVTa, for oi (3dpj3apoi Trdvreg. 

Obs. 4. The neut. of the adj. instead of the adv. is seldom used in prose except in 
the compar. and superl. (§ 115, 4.); but it occurs frequently in poetry, ^a;. gr. dsivbv 
^oq,v, to cry out dreadfully, tKirayXa (pikiiv, to love excessively. A similar use prin- 
cipally of the neuter in the plur. is not very rare in prose. The adj. then, prupei-ly 
speaking, is not employed instead of the adverb, but is rather to be considei-ed as 
standing in the accus. case, and must be explained according to the analogy of the 
usage of speech treated of in § 131, 3. Compare Xen. Anab. V. 9, 5 : tjWovto 
vxl/r/Xd rs Kai kov^cdq. The adverbial signif. of pronouns and similar general adj., 
as TO irav, entirel y, totally ; to. TroXXd Ka6tv8ei, he is mostly {the greatest paj-t of time) 

asleep, &c. is easily understood. We may also notice tovto fihv tovto de, on 

one hand on the other hand; to. fikv tA de, partly partly ; both forms being 

perfectly adverbial : ex. gr. Demosth. Lept. 474. Xenoph. Mem. 1, 3. init. 

§ 129. — Of the Noun in connexion. — Subject and Predicate, 

The signification of the words subject and predicate, and the 
general rules of construction, are supposed to be sufficiently 
known from the Latin grammar. The rules we shall give are 
therefore confined to the peculiarities of the Greek language ; 
and we remark only that the predicate, when it is a subst., is 
used according to its nature without an ar/., since instances 
like avaKoXovvTsg avrov tov evspyerijv, rov Trpodorrjv are easily 
accounted for, without interfering with the general rule. The 
predicate is always placed first when the subject is without an 
article. For examples see § 124. Obs. 4. 

1. The nomin. neut. pi. commonly has in Greek the verb in 
the sing. ; to. ^wa rpix^L, the animals run ; ravra Igtlv ayaOa, 
this is good ; ^AOrjvaiivv r]v^^ro to. TTQayfiara, — tan ravra, this is, 
i. e. that is true ; rwv ovtijjv, to. p.iv kariv l(f r]fxiv, ra §' ovk. l(j)' 
rjfjXv {ill our power). 

Obs. 1. But whenever the subject denotes animated objects, the jd?. is again pre- 
ferred in prose writers : Plato, Cach. p. 180. to. yap nupdicia k-Katvovaiv : or 

whenever the idea of singleness or of multitude is particularly alluded to, ex. gr. 
cpavepd ijtrav dvQpojTrojv Kal itttto/v Ix'^V T^oXkd. Xen. Anab. I. 7j 17. But poets 
use the plural without any such reason. 

2. Whenever a verb has for its subject several individually- 
named objects, which come after, the verb frequently is in the 
sing., ex. gr. "Eari Km Iv toIq aWaiq ttuXectlv a^xovriq re, kol 
^rifiog: if apxovTEg stood alone^ the construction would neces- 
sarily require elai : — "Iva yiyvrjTai avry ap^ai re, kuX ydfioi, koX 
oaairep, k. t. X.— Plato Rep. 2. p. 363. 

z2 



340 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Ohs. 2. One instance, where the wr& comes after, occurs in 7^. p. 386. TovvaTa 
Ti, Kvrjijiai TS, TroSeg Ti — Xapft; r oipQaXyioi re TraXdcrcreTo. 

Ohs. 3. Some dialects allow themselves to construe the verb in the sing, also with 
the jyl- of nouns masc. and fem. denoting things, which peculiarity, as it is much 
used by Pindar, is generally called schema Pindaricum. This construction is a little 
more natural, yet still uncommon, Avhen the verb comes first, as in rrJQ d' ijv Tpelg 
KscjiaXai, mentioned above in the Note to § 108, and in such a construction we even 
meet with the proper names of persons. See in this respect Leshon. 184. Herm. 
ad Find. 01. 8, 10. 11,5. Valc^. ad Herod. 5, 12. Hither belongs also the usual 
expression tariv di, &c. See § 150. 

3. Nothing however is more common than for the meaning 
of a sentence to change its grammatical precision 5 this is 
called the 

constructio Kara (rvveaiv. - 
Thus we meet a., with the plural instead of the singular with 
nouns collective ; b., with predicates adopting the natural 
gender of the subject, to which they refer. 

Examples, a.) S)q (pdcray fj ttXyjOuq. Horn, thus spoJce the multi- 
tude. — Thuc. 5, 60. TO (TTparoTreBoy dvty/opovv ^ : and the same with 
pronouns, if they refer to nouns collective : Thuc. 3, 4. XaduvreQ to tu)v 
^Adrivaiiav vavTiKor, 01 wpfiovy, &c. ibid. 1, 36. 6 QefjiiaTOKXfjg (l)ev'yEi eg 
KepKvpav, wv avTwp evepyeTrjg.- — b.) to fieipctKiov e(tti Kakog : the case is 
the same in the participial constr. Thuc. 4, 15. to. TsXt], KaTa(3dvTeg 
eg TO GvpaTOTvelov : and in circumlocutions with the gen., the predicate 
then taking the gender of the word, which stands in the gen. : Plato 
Rep. viii. p. 563. to twv drjplojv (i. e. to. Orjpict) iXevdepioTepd earty, 
Horn. II. (3. 459. 6prido}v 'iOvea TroXXd — dyaXXofjiEvai TtTepvyeaaiv. 

Obs. 4. In a speech, though addressed to many, the principal person alone is 
often accosted, and the verb is used in the plur. ; Soph. Phil. 466. 7]dri, tskvov, 
aTsXXsaOe ; On the other hand the sing, of imperatives is often used, although 
several persons be mentioned or addressed : ttVe, aye^ ^apt, i^k : Arist. Pax 383. 
dirk HOI, ti irdax^T a)vSpeg, Comp. § 115. Obs. 7- 

06s. 5. A single person sometimes speaks in Greek of himself in the pi., the 
same as in Latin, and particularly often in Greek Tragedies ; but when a female 
speaks, the predicate always is in the pi. masc. Thus Electra says in Soph, El. 391. 
7r6(Tov[ie9', fi xPV} TTUTpl TifiwpovfjLSvoi. See in this respect Herm. ad Viger. n. 50. 

4. The copula (elvai, yiyveaOai, &c.), if placed closer to the 
predicate than to the subject^ takes sometimes the number of 
the predicate. Herod. 6, 112. riaav ^e (rraSioL oi/ic kXdaaovEg to 
fiirai^fiLOV avTtJv rj oktiL. 

5. As the dual is not a necessary grammatical form, (§ 33, 
2.) any proposition about two objects may be expressed in the 
pLy and when the subject is expressed in the dual, the verb may 

^ We meet with the plur. even in the Genit. Absolut, tov aroXov — 7rXe6vT(ov, in 
Demosth. Mid. § 45. 



SYNTAX. 341 

yet be in the pi., and versa vice, and the different predicates 
and references to the subject may again interchange the two 
forms according to the exigency of euphony. 

Examples. Horn. II. f..275. toj ^e rax eyyvdev 7i\dop, iXavvovr 
wiciaQ iTTTTOvc. Z. 452. aJc on x^ifxappoL Trorajjiol /car' opea(pL piovrec,-^ 
(Tvv (^aWerov, &C. 77. 279. fJ-r)Keri, Tral^e (piXu), TroXejui^ere, fj-i^^e 
fj.ax£<^f)ov. 

Obs. 6. Nouns strictly belonging together require tlie uniformity of § 123, except 
that 1.) the numerals Svo and dfiipuj are sometimes construed with the pi. {dveXv r)fis- 
pdjp,) and 2.) the construction with the part, shares the licence of the verb, ex. gr- 
Aristoph. Mail. 573, vcj — Stiaaaai dve7rr]dj](Tafxsv, Eurip. Ale. 903. dvo ^^^xog 
(Tvvsa)(^ev 6/zoj) — diaj3dvTe. (The uncommon instances of a dual instead of the 
requisite pi. are stated § 33. 06s. 7, and § 87. Obs. 6.) 

6. When the adj. as a predicate is separated from the subst., 
it is often in the neuter, though the subst. be either masc. or 
fern., and in the sing, though the subst. be in the pi. The 
object is then considered in the aggregate as a whole, as one 
thing; hence w^e may always mentally supply the idea of a 
thing or something. 

Examples : >/ apari] e(ttlv sTrau'erov, virtue is praiseworthy ; ovk 
ayadou TroXvKOipai^irj, Horn. ; f'tO' fiBv, e'tV dvLapov Tvaldeg yiyrovrai, 
dyvoei, — xaXeirov aKpoari/JQ davveroQ, where we could say in English 
more fully, a stupid hearer is a disagreeable thing, — Aristoph. Eccl, 
236. Xprjpura Tropi^eiv evTropojTarov yvvri. It is most usually done 
when the adj. refers to several separate objects, which have been named 
before, and which are all, or the greatest part of them, things : Top 
ov^tVa Kcd TYiv KecpaXrjv (pairei Ksxpyawf-iiya, Herod. : ^Avr)p KapfidviOQ 
Kal Kvwv dixiporepa dypiMraru, jElian, H. A. 3, 2. 

Obs. 7. The predicate is often expressed by an adverb, either when the adjective 
form of an adverb does not exist, (compare § 125, 7-) or when the adverb andi copula 
coalesce into one idea. Such adverbs are : dXiq, alya, dicr]v (Horn.), eKccc, lyyvg or 
kyyvOev, TcXrja'iov, ^fX«j X^^pt^) ^^- 9^- (Xen.) ore. ayyvg, %wpig r]aav, eyyvTepov 
lyiyvovTo: further Ka\a>g, KaKU)g, xf^Xeirwg dvai, ex.gr. 41 n TiSJvd' ecrriv KaXwg. Eurip. 

7. The subject, as in Latin, commonly is not expressed, 
whenever the termination of the verb and the context sufficiently 
show it, and when there is no particular stress on it, whilst in 
such a case we always use the pronouns personal, I, thou, he, 
she, it, &c. 

Obs. 8. Any substantive (or word) in a principal sentence, although it be in an 
oblique case, needs not be repeated in a collateral sentence, on its becoming the 
subject of the latter. Herod. 9, 8. top 'laOfjcop treix^op Kai a<pi rjv Trpbg reXti. The 
case is the same in dependent propositions, the subj. of which is frequently the object 
in the principal proposition, whether it be the immediate or more distant one. 
Compare § 151. 1. 6. — Some noun may be added by way of apposition to the pronoun. 



34S A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

which is omitted, though implied in the termination of the verb; ex. gr. 6 Se Malag 
TTJQ 'ATXavTog SiaKovovfxai avrolg, i. e, " and I the son of Maja, daughter of Atlas , 
tcalt on them.'' Lucian. — It is likewise to be remarked, that the Greek adds an 
article to any noun, which is placed as an apposition to a, pron. pers., even if the 
latter be only implied in the termination of the verb. Xen. Anab. IV. f>, 16. iyw y/xof 
CLKOvii) Tovg'AOijvaiovQ diivovg dvai KXtTTTSiv to. ^/jjuocrta. Compare Krueger in 1,7? 7» 

8. The noun of the subject is likewise omitted, when the 
verb denotes the usual occupation or profession of a definite 
individual known by this occupation, ea?. gr. GaXiriZ^i or arifxaivei, 
the trumpeter gives the signal with the trumpet. Thus Demosth. 
says, avayvu)(j£Tai vfuv, he shall read to you, (speaking of the 
usual appointed reader,) and Herod, in speaking of usual 
occupations at sacrifices, the chace, &c. (2, 47. 70.) Compare 
below, Obs. 9. 

9. The same is done, where we say it, meaning some effect 
of nature, or the result of circumstances, ex. gr. vu, it rains 
(w^here we must not understand Zfuc, although the Greeks often 
said 6 Zeuc ^^h ^^^ the like) : irpodr^fiaivH, it atinounces itself 
[ex. gr. in the atmosphere) ; l^/^Xwo-e ^£, and so it showed itself 
(Xenoph. Mem. 1, 2, 32). 

10. Impersonal verbs, that is to say, verbs which have no 
reference to any person or subject, are of a very different 
nature ; the subject with them is not a kind of mystery, or left 
in the dark, but the action, to which they refer, whether it be 
expressed by an infin. or any dependent proposition, is the 
real subject of such verbs, of which verbs the peculiarity consists 
simply in their subject not being expressed by a noun or infin., 
with an article^ supplying the place of a noun ; ex. gr. I^^gti ^jloi 
cnriivai, i. e. to airiivai t^Eari fioi, {to go away is permitted to me,) 
it is permitted to me to go away (I am at liberty to go). Of 
this kind are Sa, X9^' (I'^oxpri, ^oku, (look for all these above 
among the Anomalous,) irpeiru, it becomes, Iv^ix^Tai, it is possible, 
and others, of which some also admit of personal constructions, 
which are easily understood ; hence complete phrases, like 
t^st X070V, [consentaneum est,) are to be considered as imper- 
sonals of this kind. 

11. The French on is most commonly rendered (according 
to § 127, 4.) by the pronoun rlq, in some cases also by the 2 
pers., ex.gr. ipmrjQ av, {on diroit,) ^you would say;' or, as in 
Latin, by the 3 pers. pL, or by the pass., chiefly in the expres- 
sions, (pacTi, \iyerai, but also in other expressions (Thuc. 7, 69). 
"Ottep iraaxovcnv ev roXg fjieyaXoig aytJariv. 



SYNTAX. 343 

06s. 9. The word rig may also be omittedj and consequently the 3 pers. sing, used 
alone, if by the French general pronoun on, the Eng. one, we understand either 1.) 
the person wJio performs the action, (compare 8.) ex.gr. Tbv XaixTrrrjpa TrpocreveyKaroj, 
(qu'on apporte la lanterne,) "^let the lantern he b'ought," Xenoph. Sijmp. 5,2 ; or 2.) 
the indefinite subject of a preceding verb, ex.gr. Ovk 1(jtiv opOiog ijytlcrOaL lav firj 
^povijjLog y, it is impossible to he a good commander in chief, if one he not prudent, Plato 
Meno 38. 

12. The copula is also frequently omitted, though only in the 
pres. indicat., for instance in general sentences : ra rwv (ptXwv 
KOLva ; or when no obscurity ensues from it : "EWriv tyoj, I am 
a Greek ; ^ifiuividy ov p^^iov cittkttsXv ; <TO(pog yap koX d^log 6 

Obs. 10. There are some words, which are seldom construed otherwise, than in 
this elliptic manner ; as especially the suhst. avdyKr],x9^<^^> Osfxtg, Kuipbg, utpa ; the 
adject. SToifxog, (ppovdog, alriog, pg,Siog, xaXsTrbg, and others ; the locutions : 6av[xa- 
GTOV oaov, dfirjxavov oaov, (§ 150.) and the neuter terhal adjectives in rkov or 
(plur.) Tsa. Examples : ov Kal rovro dvdyKri ; is not this also required? even with- 
out lyoj, Luc. Catapl. 10. — Troirjrsov, faciendum est (see § 134, 10). Compare Heind. 
ad Plat. Phcedr. 69. Gorg. 68. Valch ad Phoen. 976. 

§ 130. — Object. — Oblique Cases. — Omission of the object. 

1. The person or thing, on which an action is performed,, or 
to which that action refers — the object — is always in one of 
these three cases, ge?!., dat., accus., which on that account are 
called dependent, oblique cases. 

2. The proximate object, or necessary relation of the trans- 
itive verb, without which this verb cannot be conceived, com- 
monly is in the accus., Aa^jSavw Tr)v daTri^a, I take or seize the 
shield ; but the remote object named along with the accus. and 
with intrans. verbs is connected by ?i prep., Xajuf^avd) rriv darTTL^a 
aTTo Tov TraacrdXov, I take the shield from the nail ; ecrrriKa ev roj 
lEd(f)£L, I stand on the ground. 

3. The relations of more remote objects, which return most 
frequently, are generally expressed by a mere casus, which in 
the European languages, which have cases, is chiefly the gen. 
and dat., ex. gr. I give the money to the man, he assured me of 
his benevolence. 

4. But languages differ greatly in this respect : what is ex- 
pressed in one by one case, is rendered in another language by 
another case ; and very frequently one language employs a 
prep., where the other simply uses a case, or some may use 
either the ^jre/?. or the casus : ex. gr. in English, I gave the 
letter to him, or / gave him the letter. When we therefore 
meet with a mere casus in Greek, where other languages use a 
preposition, we must not be too hasty with the interpretation 



344 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

of an omitted preposition ; we had better assume that the casus 
involves ah'eady that idea, which we would render apparent 
through the medium of a preposition. 

5. Nothing, however, is more common in the ancient lan- 
guages, (and it may be considered as one of their fundamental 
principles,) than that, whenever the object has already been 
named, and the reference to it is abundantly apparent from 
the verb itself, they do not express either of the two objects, 
(just as in other instances they do not express the subject and 
the pronoun possessive,) and thus avoid that multiplicity of pro- 
nouns, which greatly obstructs our modern languages. It will 
be sufficient to direct the attention of the learner to this parti- 
cular nature of the ancient languages, with the addition of a few 
examples : Xen. Cyrop. i. 2, 12. 'Ev ^ S' av tCjv (pvXbJv ttXhcttol 
uxTLv dvdpiKWTaTOi, kTraivovaiv ol TroXlrai (here we must mentally 
supply TavTr\v before iTraivovGLv). — Xenoph. Hell. 3, 4, 3. 'Erray- 
yEiXajuivov tov ' Ajr](ji\aov rr)v cxTpaTEiav, [ivlien Agesilaus offered 
himself to command the army,) S<Soaa-£v oi AaKedaijuovioi (viz. 
avT(o) oaairep yTr}(jEv : — Athen. 8. pag. 339. ''^Ov rjv tdrj, rag 
X^pac ovK d(l)i^eTaL (viz. avrov). But in this, as in all other 
instances, where it produces an emphasis or harmonious ful- 
ness, the pronouns may be equally well used. 

Ohs. 1. When there are two verbs, especially q> participle and the definite tense of 
another verb, which have but one object, the Greek expresses that object commonly 
but once, and places it in the casus, governed by that verb, to which it is nearest. 
For examples see Krueger to Dionys. Historiogr. p. 119. 

Ohs. 2. Another kind of omission of the object is that of the reflective eavrdv, 
inavrhv, &c. which may take place or be understood, whenever a terh, which else 
is altogether transitive, becomes intrans. in particular combinations, as, for instance, 
several compounds of dyeiv, to lead, where the intrans. idea of going is the fundamen- 
tal meaning, commonly, however, with the accessary idea of going with pomp, or in a 
crowd, ex.gr. 'E|f%wp?j(7£ tyiq odov, Trpoadyovrog tov Tvpdvvov,lie went out of the road, 
when the tyrant approached (as if it were, moved towards him). Such cases belong to 
dictionaries, and we must remember 1.) not to be too ready with this explanation, 
and not to adopt it in prose-writers in particular, but when we are fully convinced 
that the phrase in question is really customary ; nor 2.) ought we to consider the 
omission of kavrbv as necessary in every instance, since in a great many verbs the 
assumption of their primitive, immediative, and causative signif. (according to § 113, 
2.) is the mosf philosophically correct, ex.gr. in opng,v, to rush forth, excite. 

Obs. 3. Properly it is only the part, of a vei-b, which can be construed with the 
same case, as that verb governs. Subst. and adj. derived from a verb, convert the 
case of the latter into the gen., or necessitate a circumlocution. But we frequently 
find in the Attic writers the accus. as well as dat. of the verb joined to the noun 
with a peculiar energy and precision, ex. gr. clkoXovQ^tlkoq nvi, j^rone to, t) kKacFTtii 
diavkixrjaig, the action of distributing to each, Trpbg eTtiSn^iv Tolg ^kvoig,for a display 
to strangers; — rd pereojpa (ppovriarrjc, one who meditates on superhuman things, Plato 
Apol. 2. from (ppovrl^eip Ti,to meditate on; — 'Avrjicoov eivai 'ivid ye x6^i?a re Kal 



SYNTAX. 345 

TrpcoiZd ■yeysvrifj.eva, not hearing of something, which had occurred,, Plato Alcih. II. 7 
(usually avrjKoov dvai rivog). The case is the same with sTricrTrjuiov, and in poets 
(pv^ijxoQ, tvvia-iop, from i-KiaTajxai, (pevyoj, ^vvoidd ri. The adj. i.U,apvoQ is always 
construed in this manner, and hence combined with the terh suhst., it signifies to 
deny, and (like apveXaOai) governs not only the infin. {'i^apvog ei/Jii Troifjaai,) but 
also the accus., ex. gr. ottujq /x?) t^apvoQ laei a vvv Xeysig, Plato Euthyd. 283. 

Ohs. 4. !Many terhs may be construed either with an object, or in its stead with 
another sentence or proposition by means of a conjunction. Sometimes both con- 
structions are found together with one terh, Plato Gorg. 77- ^al %p?7//ara irapa- 
crKSva^ovTai ical (piXovg, Kal OTTUjg av wcriv (hg iriQavLOTaToi Xkysiv, Rep. 6. jO. 496. 
Twr TToWoJp iicavoJg ISovreg t))v [j.aviav,Kai on ov^elg aurQv ov8ev vyieg Trpdrrsi. 

§ 131 »■ — Accusative. 

1. The use of the accus. case^ denoting any proximate and 
immediate object, governed by a transitive verb^ is supposed 
to be sufficiently known from other grammars. But there are 
often instances^ where in one language the object is proximate 
to a verb, and in another it is more remote in the gen. or dat. 
case, or it is construed with a preposition ; and ia like manner 
verbs in Greek are construed in a transitive sense, which in 
other languages have no object belonging to them. The follow- 
ing verbs govern the accusative case in Greek, thus deviating 
from the German, (and for the most part also from the Eng- 
lish,) or they are at least usually translated into verbs which 
govern another casus or a preposition : 

ovLvavai, w^eXav to be useful to, (but \v<jiteXhv always 
governs the clat.) j^Xairr^Lv to hurt, d^iKuv to do injustice to, 
svEpyETE'iv to do good, to act ivell, KaKovpynv to do wrong — 

XarpEVELV, OEOa—EVELV to serve dcoTTTElV, OlOTTEVELV, KoXaKEVEiV 

to flatter — pLiyiElaBaL to imitate — (pOavuv to obviate — Xavda- 
vBiv to be concealed from, (pevyeiv to flee, to escape, aTroEidpacT- 
KEiv to run aivay from, ettlXeitteiv to be in ivant of—6fjivvvai 
to swear, ex. gr. tovq Oeovq by the gods, ettlopke'Iv, dcTEfdETv, 
dXiTE'lv to perjure one's self, to sin against any body — the verbs 
impers. EeI and xpv with the accus. of the person, — lastly 
all verbs denoting the affections of the mind, as dXye'lv, 
a\6E(T0ai, wdivEiv, dyavaKTElv, ^vcravaG^ETElv, ^va^EpaivEiv, 
yr]9Elv, \aipELv, EirixaipELV, i]dE(T6ai, TEpTTEdOm, QappElv to feel 
joy, pain, indignation at something. — Many intransitive verbs 
become transitive by an object being added to them ; thus 
TTpotjKvvElv to fall down, Tiva to shoia respect to any person 
by falling down, ^opv(popElv nva to be the body-guard of 
somebody, to protect him, dpiaKEiv to reconcile, to win, l-m- 



346 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

rpoTTEVELv to be guardian, &c. to somebody, avnaZeiv to attack, 

(TTTBvdeiv to hasten, vTroarrivaL to promise, Tiixwpuadai, TiaaG- 

6ai riva to take revenge on any body, and many verbs in the 

middle voice^ as ala^vv^aOai, KOTrrecrOai, tKirXriTTecrOai. (See 

below in the passive and middle voice, § 134, 135.) 

2. Other verbs, though they may take the accus. case, do not 

become on that account transitive verbs, as irpoGKVvHv in the 

former section. Such are Uvai, spx^f^Oai, Paivsiv, iropsveGdai, 

rpi^eiv for instance 6^6v ; irtpatoiKjOai, ex. gr, irorafiov ; ttXuv, 

ex. gr. OaXaoaav ; pfiv, ex. gr. at Tryiyai piovai yaXa koi fxi\i. 

Poets furnish, a great many verbs of this kind, ex. gr. l^avat^uv 

ypXov, (j)6vov IdXiwBiv, fiiv^a Trvdovreg, &c. 

Obs. 1. Poets join the accusative without any prep, to verbs denoting motion, in 
order to express the direction, and the same is even the case with verbs denoting 
rest, {KaOi^etv, BcKjanv, KtlaQai,) in order to point to place and situation, ex. gr. 
Soph. Phil. 145. Of tottov Kflrat. 

8. It is a peculiarity of the Greek language to give to the 
verb a subst. denoting the meaning of the verb in the abstract, 
chiefly for the purpose of adding another modification. 

Examples. Kiv^wevab) tovtov tov k'lv^vvov, (I tvill risk the risk,) I 
will expose myself to the danger ; 'Crj (3iov r^hiarov, he lives a very 
agreeable life ; (pavepiog tov iroXepov TroXE^uicrofXEv, we will war an open 
war ; >/ adiKia, fjy ij^itcovv ae, {the wrong, with which I wronged you,) 
the injustice, which I did you, (compare 5.) yXvKvv virvov Koipdadai, 
— k-mpeXovt'Tai Trdaay eirifxiXeiav. The Greek thus avoids the power- 
less accumulation of our to do, make cause, have, &c. (See the same 
construction with the ^as5. § 134. Obs. 2.) 

Obs. 2. Even the predicate with the verb elvai sometimes has such an additional 
kindred accus., ex. gr. AovXog Ictti rag fifyiaTag SovXeiag, dCiKog eKoicrTr^v dSiKiav, 
(To^bg TTiv Iksivcjv (To<piav, KaKovg Traaav KUKiav. The excellence of such ex- 
pressions becomes eminently conspicuous by the fruitless attempt to render them 
as energetically in other languages. 

4. The Greeks also use the accus. in several phrases for the 
more remote object ; for instance, the proximate object of Troidv 
is the action, of Xiyuv it is the words ; the more remote object 
of both is the person, to whom something is done or said : 
nevertheless the Greeks always say KUKtog Troidv nva, to do harm 
to any one, kokwc Xiyeiv nva, to speak ill of one. But there are 
also many verbs, which may be conceived as having two dif- 
ferent relations, both as proximate objects, and consequently 
both in the accus. ; ex. gr. to wrap, I wrap the child {up in a 
cloak), and the cloak [round the child). 



SYNTAX. 347 

5. These two cases explain the pecuharity, that all such 
verbs in Greek often have the two relations at once in the 
same sentence in the accus., or, to use a shorter expression, 
that they govern two accus., of which one in most instances 
denotes the person, and the other the thing, to which the 
action refers ; ex. gr. tl ttoiiicfu) avrov ; what shall I do to him ? 
TToAAct aya9a rP/v iroXiv l7roir](TEv. 

This construction occurs in verbs signifying 
to act : TTOLUv, ^pav, IpydZEcrOai riva t\ ; 
to speak : Xiyeiv, httuv, ayopeviiv ; 

to ask : epiarOai, lpo)Tav, kK^raZsiv to find out by inquiring ; 
to teach : ^i^d(TK£iv as in German and in Latin ; 
to dem,and : mruv, a-KairCiv, irpaTTEGOai, irpOKaXuaOai to 

invite, to challenge to do something ; 
to dress and to undress; evdveiv, aiu^dvvv^i, £«cSu£tv, vnoduv; 
to take away : cK^aLouaQai, airavp^v, airoppaUiv, IvapiZuvt 

IpYifiovVi dvXav, airocTTEpE'iv ; 
to force: avayKaZeiv, jdirjcraGdai; 
to divide : KaTavijueiv, ddaaaOai ; 

to conceal : aTTOKpvirrHv, kevOeiv. Further, ava/nifivrjCFKEiv 

Tivd TL to remind one of sornething ; ttelOeiv rivd tl to 

persuade somebody to something ^ 

Examples : KaKo. eXeyev avrov. — dVavrac eipero 7ra7^a {after the 

hoy). — hSdai^ovai tovq Tra'i^ag (Tuxppoavvrjy. — Qijfiaiovg '^^pripara Ijrrjaav, 

— erepop iralda eK^uaag ")(jLTwva, tov kavTOv iKtlvov tjpcpuaey. — tovq ttoXe- 

piovg Trjv vavv dTreareprjtcctpey. — rovro pt) clydyKai^i pe. — Toelg poipag 

(into three parts) — ^uadpei'og Trdvra tov tve'Cov drparov. — ov ae diro- 

Kpvxpio rag fpcig ^v air pay lag. 

Obs. 3. We must now mention two other constructions, in each of which two 
accus. cases occur, viz. : 

1.) The placing of both, the object and the predicate, in the accus. with verbs 
denoting to call, to choose, to create, ex.gr. <To(pi(TT^v ovofjid^ovcn tov 
di'Spa TovTOV — Tovg 'A9r]vaiovQ elXovTO ^vmxdxovg. Tn the passive two 
nominatives are used, as in Latin. 
2.) The construction called the (TxrJlJ-a kuQ' o\ov koI [xspog, or the construction 
in which the whole as well as the part are placed in the accus. case, ex. gr. 

TTOloV (T£ tTTOQ (pVjeV 'ipKOQ odoVTOJV' — TOV dk OKOTOQ 6 CF (J 6 KClXv^^V. 

Comp. 06s. 4. 

6. The accus. is a still more remote object, when, as is fre- 
quently the case in Greek, it denotes only a part, circumstance, 
or more definite object, to which a general assertion is limited, 

^ But this does not mean that all such verbs, or that the above verbs are always 
construed in this niannei*. Thus we find in Xen. Cyr. 7? 2, 26. fxaxag aoi kuI 
TToXifiovQ a.<paipio (comp. Od. a. [)). Anab. 6, 8, 24. TovT(f) rdvavTia Tcoiriotre ff 
Tovg Kovag 7roiov(n, and other passages. 



348 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

ex. gr, koKoq Igtl to aCjfia, (he is handsome in his body,) he is of 
a fine figure; irodag ujKvg, swift-footed ; ttovsIv ra cTKeXr], to feel 
pains in the legs; aXyw rag yvaOovg : — OavjuadTog to. tov iroXifiov, 
amaziyigly clever in what concerns war ; ^v(jog i]v tyjv Trarplda, 
he was a Syrian by birth [by his country) ; Swjcparr^C Tovvona, 
Socrates by name. The names of fights, games, and sacrifices, 
are also construed in the accus. with the verbs referring to 
them, as dpajueXv to a-Ta^iov, viKav ^OXvjunria, IdTEcfyavCjaOai YLvOia, 
f t/ayytXia, [on account of a favourable message^) daivvvm yajLiov, 
Ovetv ETTLVLnia, &c. This construction is well known by the 
name of the Greek accusative, so frequently imitated by the 
Latin poets {ex. gr. os humerosque deo similis). That the 
accus. does not come from the prep, jcara being omitted, fol- 
lows from § 130, 4. 

7. But even verbs, which never have subst. of this kind in 
the accus., take this case, whenever there is, instead of the 
definite object, a pronoun, or any other general expression, 
ex. gr. tl \pu)}xai avT(^ ; ivhat use shall I put it to ? ovk ol^a, 
6, TL (JOL xgCifxai, properly, / do not know what use I shall put you 
to, i. e. what I am to do with you ; TrdvTa tvdaiinovHv, to prosper 
in everything, and the like ^ 

Obs. 4. This also (viz. Text 6. and 7-) explains the two accus. in those cases, where 
not the person, but the thing, is the more remote object, as, for instance, in phrases 
like Tnjv kv MapaQCjvi fxdxiiv rovg fBapjSapovg kviKrjasv : — rd fieyiara u)(ps\r](TeT6 
Ttjv TToXiv : — TToXXd [Jis rjdiKijKSv, he has injured me in many things. In some of the 
t)erhs mentioned above (5.) as Si^daicEiv, kvdvtiv, it may appear doubtful whether the 
person or thing is to be considered as the more remote object; the most natural 
supposition, however, is that both objects were pi-imitively considered as equally 
proximate. — See about the accus. with the pass, and middle voice, § 134, 135. 

8. Hither belongs also the accus., which, as in Latin and 
German, expresses the duration of time ; ex. gr. ttoXvv xpoi^oi^ 
wap^liHvev, he stayed away a long time with him ; KaOrjVTo ev 
Ma/ctSoi/ia TpeXg oXovg jurivag, they tarried three whole months in 
Macedonia ; (ra TroXXa KaOtvSei, and the like, are stated above, 
§ 128. Obs. 4.) The measure of a distance is likewise stated 
in the accus., ex. gr. airix^i ^Ikq (jTadiovg, it is at the distance 
of ten stadia. 

9. Lastly the accus. case is used in an adverbial sense, of 
which some instances in the neuter gender have been already 
mentioned in § 128. Obs. 4. Thus we meet with Tiva Tpoirov ; 
qua ratione ? Kwog Sikyiv, in the manner of a dog ; Ifxriv x^P^^^ 

2 The accus. d/xcporspa is very different, about which see § 150, 



SYNTAX. 349 

mea gratia ; rrjv lopav, at the right time ; ttjv raxf'orrjv, evOuav, 
fxaKpav, SC. o^ov, &C. 

Obs. 5. The accus. is sometimes added to a proposition as an apposition, when its 
meaning is tantamount to u-hich is or will be, ex. gr. II. w. 735. r/ tiq 'A'x^aiwv pi^n 
(aiiTOv) ciTib TTvpyov, Xvypbv oXeOpov, which is a miserable death ; Eurip, Oresi. 1105. 
'EXsi^jjv KTOLvojixsv, MfveXe^ Xvirrjv 7nKpav,xi:e will hill Helena to the bitter grief of 
Menelaus. 

Obs. 6. A proverbial expression is commonly designated by inserting before it in 
the context to Xe-yoixsvov, ex. gr. Plato Got'g. init. 'aXX' tj, to Xtyonivov, KaToiriv 
topTrjQ i]K0[jisv ; do we come, as the saying is, after the feast? — and in the same way, 
TO Tov TToirjTov, before a passage from a poet, and the like. The analogy of other 
phrases shows that these are accus. of the neuter gender, which in other languages 
are expressed by a pr^j). with its proper casus, {according to the poet,) &e. It is tlie 
same with the adverbial expressions TovvavTiov, on the contrary, {ex. gr. ovtoq de, -nav 
TovvavTiov, rjjSovXsTo jxev, ovk rjdvvaro de) TavTO tovto, exactly so, and the like. 

§ 132. — Genitive. 

1. The proper use of the gen., both subjective and objective^ 
with another subst., is shared by the Greek with other lan- 
guages. We shall, therefore, state only its accessary signifi- 
cations, and especially when it is joined to adj., verbs, and 
adverbs. 

Examples of the gen. objective, which is frequently in use with poets ; 
TToOoQ vlov, the longing after the son; tvvoia 'Adrjvaiwy, towards the 
Ath. ; 1] tov deov XaTpeia, the service of God ; evyfJiaTa HaXXa^oQ, Xiral 
deajv, to the gods ; y twv UXciTaiewv eTviaTpaTeia, against the PL ; aojTijp 
KUKu)}', from misfortune. 

2. The names of countries are put in the gen. for obvious 
reasons, whenever towns are mentioned with the countries 
wherein they lie, and where in English the pi^ep. in is used. 
Hence tTiq 'Arrtjcfjc £C Oivorjv, Thuc, ev Kopriaa^) ri^g 'E^ecrtrj^, 
Herod. 

3. In order to take a more comprehensive view of the use of 
the gen., we must remember, that the fundamental idea of a 
ge7i. is that of separation, proceeding from, and that it has the 
import of the prep, of or from and out of. It follows from what 
has been said in § 130, 4. that when we occasionally meet with 
a prep, instead of the mere gen., it must be considered as 
having been added only for the sake of distinctness; and, on 
the other hand, that poets may ahvays employ the mere gen. 
even in those cases where prose-writers commonly use the 
prep., ex. gr. Arat. 185. tto^oq eg iroda Tdvei,from one foot to the 
other. 



350 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

4. The gen, then is employed in Greek when the direction 
from or out of a 'place is to be expressed, ex, gr, dojmujv Uvai, to 
come out of a house ; hence, 

1.) with all verbs denoting separation, ex. gr. vocrcpiZ^iv, 
')(opiZ^iv, KwXu£tv, lpr]TVHv, elpysiVj to separate, keep off, — rivd 
TivoQ — (TT£pi(TKeiv, cnro(TTEpt7v, (the latter also with the object 
in the accus.) to rob — IXivQ^qovv, \vuv, a^dvai, aTvaWaTTUv, 
(to)Zhv, afivvuv, aXe^eiv, to free one, to save, to defend from, 
— lK(j)evyEiv, l^avLCFTavai, )(^u)puv, v7ro\(i)pdv, afcEtv, to flee, to 
give way, — cnrix^iv, ^lex^iv, ^ia(p^pEiv, to be distant, to differ 
from, — CLfxapTCLVuv, afnrXaKiaKHV, a^aWeaOai, ipev^EaOai, to 
fail, to deceive one's self, — ii^Qka^aL, cKJiiefrOai, iraveaOat, 
Xr)yeiv, IttLx'^lv, to cease from, to leave off. And in the 
same manner the adject, derived from the preceding 
verbs, as yvfivog, eXsvOepog, ^mf^Ojooc; adverbs like v6(T(pL, 

Examples : voaov t^vV cnraWd^u) x^ova. — ^lirrxpy aWifKwv rpta- 
Kovra ord^m. — ^Apyeloi eXi^^ai^ (povoio. — lAvrjcrrfj^ac tTravaav aiOXioy, 
they made them desist from their games. — apx<^'^ ayaQoQ ohhev hiaipipu 
TrarpoQ ayaduu. — ijiiapre roii ctkottov. — Hence Homer, {Od. a. 69.) 
6(j)daXfiou aXdcjffsy, he blinded his eye. 

2.) with expressions denoting selection or choice, excep- 
tion, and in general portion or part of a whole, the word 
expressing the whole is placed in the geyi. ; consequently, 
a.) with adj. and pronouns, when they serve to sepa- 
rate or distinguish an object from others ; hence with 
all numerals and adj. denoting a number, as ttoXuc? oXi- 
yoQ, 01 fxlv and ol St, ouSttg, fxovoQ, b trepog, &c. with the 
pron. demonstr. and relat., ex. gr. owSag rwv 'EXXfjvwv, 
jiiovog avOpwTTijJv, tCjv arparniiTUiV tqIq filv I^okzl, toIq S' ov, 
avrai tCjv iroXtuyv. See the example cv y S' av rwv ^vXiov, 
§ 130, 5. In general, with all adj. and part, in such 
combinations as ol (ftpovi/ioi tCjv avOpivTrwv, i. e. in short, 
clever people; tow avdputv ToTg KaXoTg KayaOotg aipeTU)Te- 
pov Igtl Oavuv rj ^ovXeveiv. — riov TToX^fxiwv Tovg Trpoafxi- 
^avTag fJLa\r) tKiparrjcray. 

Hither also belong naturally all superlatives ; ex. gr. 
7} fXiyiaTr] rCov vogujv avaicHa. — Xj^rj/xarwv TTCfvrwv rifjudi-^ 
rarov kariv avr\p (^iXog avverog re. icaX ivvovg. — and the 
locution ^HvoTarog aavrov r\aOa, you were superior to 
yourself 



I 



SYNTAX. 351 

Obs. 1. Just as in the proposition expressed in the pi. ol <pp6vifioi tSjv dvOpuircov, 
genders agree, so they do in the sing., when part of a whole likewise in the sing, is to 
be expressed. This part, then, is not in the 7ieut. gender, but in the gender of the 
word expressive of the whole in the gen., ex. gr. rj ttoW?) Trig JleXoTrovvfifrov, most 
part or the greatest part of the Peloponnesus ; b rj}iiavQ tov ^povou, half of the time ; 
and also with superlatives, ex. gr. r) opOordri] riig aicstpsijjg, the most correct inocdiga- 
fion, Plato Crat. 18, 

Obs. 2. With 01 fisv — oi de the woi'd denoting the whole is placed likewise in the 
same case in which these pron. are, see § 126, 2. (Isocr. de Pac. 113.) 

b.) with adverbs of time, and adverbs of places con- 
sidered as parts of a more extensive time or place^ ex. gr. 
Tpig rfjc,' r}jULipag, three times a day ; oirors rov erovg; at 
what time of the year ? irol yrjg a^tfco^ryv ; whither on 
earth have I got ? (like the Latin ubi terrarum ?) irav 
Ta-)(ov Trig dyopag., everywhere in the market ; wuppu) Trig 
TiXiKiagyfar advanced in yearns. 

Obs. 3. Hither belongs also the expression, Etg tovto dvaKTxwriag Trpo[3s^t]Kt,to 
this degree of impudence: — Trgog tovto icaipov TrcipecrTi to. TrpdyfxaTa, to this crisis are 
matters arrived ; etg toctovto fxicrovg KaTsaTrjasv wore — ; and the like. 

c.) with all verbs where the action is limited to apart 
or portion, ex. gr. eSwKa gol tCjv xprj/uLaruiv, some or part 
of my money ; Kariaya rf/c K£({>aXrig, (properly^ / ain 
broken . in part of my head.) i. e. have a fracture in 
the head ^ ; and hence with all verbs which express to 
have a share in or to take part in a thing ; ex. gr. with 
tivai, psTelvai, fieTi)(jcLv, fieTaXajLifSaveiv, KOivcoveXv, (adj. 
KOLvwvog,) and others ; — to be patiaking of: rvyxaveiv, 
\ay)(^av£Lv, dvriav, Kvpuv^ KXrjpovopeiv ; — and to touch, to 
seize: aTrreaOai, XujujddveaOai, with their compounds^ 
£Xf<''^«'3 "^av^iv, OiyydvELv, and similar ones ; compare 5, 
8. and 6, 3. 
Examples : ijdeXe rwv pevovTwv ilvai. — riiq ftovXrjg elvai, to be mem- 
ber of the council. — psTeari (Jlol toiu TrpuypciTOJr. — dvr]Tov aujparog 
tVv^ec, adavciTov ce -ipv^^ijg. — Xen. Anab. 7, 6, 41. yf (Toj(f)poviopet^, 
k^oneda aiiTOv. 

d.) with all verbs denoting enjotjment of or deriving 

1 We may in this way understand many instances of gen., by which a verb refers 
rather indefinitely to an object, (Herm. ad Viger. 881.) especially the Homeric 
O'iuv TTtoioio, as if it were to run through part of the plain. Thus also the expression 
ikvai TOV TvpocFuj, to go forwards, onicards, as if it were to go part of the farthermost 
road, Xen. Anah. 1, 3, 1. Soph. Aj. 731. with Lobeck's Note. — But it would be 
rather overstraining to explain the Homei-ic expressions, ex. gr. \oviaBai TroTafj-olo, 
Trprycrai irvpcg, as a part ov portion, and it is probably more accurate to say of tliese, 
and other similar poetical expressions, that the gen. in the old language denoted any 
general relation, whenever the proximate one was obvious of itself, pretty nearly as 
is the case with the prep, /card and the accus. 



352 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

benefit from any thing: airoXavuv, ovivaoOm, yeveiv, yev- 
a(T9aL; and with verbs denoting eating, drinking, when- 
ever the thing enjoyed is mentioned^ ex.gr. egOUlv Kpfwv, 
TTivuv v'^aTOQ, to eat meat, to drink water (eaOhiv ra Kpia 
would signify to eat the meat up, and irivuv u§wp might 
mean to drink water habitually, to be a water-drinker). 
3.) The gen. is farther used to denote the material or 
stuff of which something consists, ex. gr. aricliavog vaKLvOwv, 
a garland of hyacinths, or made of hyacinths ; ex. gr. hog 
XWov irav TTtTTotrjrai, the whole is made of one stone. 

4.) The circumstances or pecuUarities on which things 
are^ as it were, dependent, are expressed in the gen. : ^iv- 
dpov iroXXbJv hu)v, a tree of many years (standing). 

Obs. 4. The consti'uction of the gen. with dvai corresponds entirely with the Latin 
esse and i\\e gen. or ahl. It is used to express : 1.) possession, as iraaa tj yrj sari 
iSaffiXstoQ, belongs to the hing ; eavroii tlvai, to be one's own master, to be free ; 2.) the 
quality of any thing, as r}v yap d^iMfxarog [xeydXov ', 3.) habit, usage, ex. gr. tort 
^povifiov dvdpoQ, est prudentis, or with abstract nouns: TroWrJQ dvoiag larl to 
OripdaQai Ktvd, (Soph. El. 1054.) it is the sign of, «&c. ; 4.) possibility or chance, ex. 
gr. in the proverb : ov iravroQ dvdpbg eig TLopivOov iaQ' 6 TrXovg, 

5.) The following kinds of words are generally con- 
strued with the gen. : 

1.) Adjectives derived from verbs have the object of the 
verb in the gen., ex. gr. from iTTLGTaadai n, to under- 
stand something, comes iTriarrjiuLtov rivog, experienced in 
a thing ; Trpoartyopog ovSsvog, {irpoaayop^vio riva,) he 
who does not address any body ; 6(j)iig, dvOpwirtw ovda- 
juwg ^r}\{]iuLoveg, tvhich are not dangerous to man ; espe- 
cially the numerous adj. derived from verbs, and ter- 
minating in LKog, ex. gr. from l^^raZuv ri comes l^eTa- 
(TTiKog TLvog, skilled hi investigating any thing; ol 
TrpaKTiKol tCov diKatdJv (from tcl ^iKaia), About the 
exceptions see § 130. Obs. 3. 

2.) All words denoting plenty or want, as irXrjpovv, iri^- 
TTAavai, KopivvvaOai, daai, yifiuv, jSpt^siv, Sa, (see § 131, 
1.) ceiaOai^, diropuv, tWdiriiv, GiraviZ^uv, ^ripovaOai, 
&c, and the adj. irXiwg, fitiGTog, Kevog, lirid^rig, tpYjjuog, 
ipiXog, and others ; the adv. dXig, adi]p, ex. gr. ^uaOat 
Xprjjudrwv, to want money; fiearov Igtl to Znv (^povri^wv, 

2 Owing to the idea of wanting, needing, StlaOca in the sense of requiring, asking, 
entreating, with the gen. of the person. — With regard to oXiyov, ttoXXou dtlv. see 
§ 140. Obs. 5. 



I 



SYNTAX. 353 

3.) All words denoting worth or unworthiness : a^iog, 
ava^iog, aE,iovGOaL; see 6, 2. 

4.) All words denoting experience, skill, reminiscence, 
and their opposite : ifnru^og, 'i^pig, ctTretpoC) IdLwr-qg, 
aSarjg, (hence in poets the participles like to^wv ev 
eldwg, II. j3. 720.) and the verbs to remember, to for- 
get : fxLfxv{](jKHv with its compounds, ixvnuovEvziv, Ittl- 
XavOavHV. 

5.) Several other verbs, especially those denoting cai^e, 
concern, and their opposite : eTrijuiXeaOm, Kri^eaOai, 
^povTiZeiv, /liXsL jULOL TivoQ, cLjusXeXv, uXsyiZ^iv, oXiyo)- 
pHv ; to spare, ^£t§f o-^at ; to disregard, and to admire^ 
Kara^povsLV, Oav/naZ^iv. 

6.) desire, lirSvfiElv, opiyeaOai, l(l>Uadai, Ipav^^ ipaaOai, 
to aim at something, aroxaZEGQai, TiTvaKeaOai, hence 
also To^eveiv rivog, aKOVTiZ^iv rivog, 

7.) indicting, condemning : Karrjyopuv, KaTayiyvdxTKHv, 

8.) the verbs which have a relation to the senses, ex- 
cepting the sight ; ex, gr, oZetv fivpMv, to smell of per- 
fumes ; Tovg SovXovg cyfucre Trig iXsvOepiag ; — aKovoj 
iraidiov KXaiovrog, I hear a child crying * (comp. 4, 2, 
c. and d.) ; and in general the verbs denoting to per- 
ceive, to learn : aiGOav^aOai, TrvvOavecrOai, luavOdvuv, 
(JwiEvat^ eTTdieiv. 

9.) But it is especially 

the Comparative 
which always has the object, with which the com- 
parison is made, in the gen., ex, gr, fxd^wv bjuov, taller 
than I, G0(pd)TEp6g IrrTi tov ^L^aaKoXov, he is wiser than 
his master, koXXlov lp.ov ^^eig, you sing better than I 
do ; apETY\g ovdlv ktyijuo. ectti (jefivoTEpov. 

10.) Hence, lastly, all verbs denoting the idea of com- 
parison in their signification^ ex, gr. TTporiiuav, to value 
more; — to excel: TrepiyiyveaOai, TTEpiiXvai, ^^(pipuv, 
vTTfp/BaXXftv, apLGTEvEiv, diaTTpETTEiv ', to bc infcrior, i]T- 
TaaOai, varepHv ; also to ride : ap)(^tiv% avcKTGEiv, KparEiv, 

' Hither belongs also the verb ep^v Tivog, to love in the sense of desinng, seeJcing 
after ; whilst ^tXelv, aTspysiv, dyuTr^v Tivd, is to love in the sense of having an 
affection for. 

* aKovHv most commonly governs the accus. of the sound, and the gen. of him who 
produces it ; there are, however, exceptions in both instances. See Steph. Thes. 

^ dgx^iv, dp)(^eG6ai, and their compounds, are also construed with the gen. (and 
accus.) in the signification oi beginning any thing, 

A a 



354 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

i)ye'i(j9ai, tTTforarav, and similar ones ; the adj. lyKpa- 
TrjQ, aicpariig. — ijTTti) tivai with the gen. has the pecuKar 
signification of to be subject, to be given to ; ex. gr. 
r]TTh)v IcjTi TYiQ yaGTpQQ, lie Is g'wen to drinking, 

Ohs. 5. The more complete construction of the compar. is with r], {than, Lat. quam, 
see below, the jyarticles, § 149.) but it is used only where the gen. cannot be employed. 
The Greeks are so fond of this latter construction, that they even put into the gen. 
the object, to which the comparison does not directly apply ; fxiiZova tfiov disTrpa^ev: 
— Aristoph. Eccl. 235. airia tlq ttjq Tsicovcrrjg fjidWov aTrnrsfi'^psuv dv ', {who more 
than the mother ?) The ambiguity, which sometimes arises from this construction, 
can only be explained by the thing itself from the context, Herod. Hvpafiida cnre- 
X'nrero ttoWov IXdacru) rod Trarpoc, tohich was much smaller than his father ; or smaller 
than that which his father left behind. — The following construction is of a different 
kind, Mei^ojv rep e'nrovTi yiyverai (3\dj3rj rov TmroirncoTog, i. e. 17 rqi ttsttoii^koti. 

Ohs. 6. The words dWoq and erepog sometimes imitate the compar. ; ex. gr. dXXog 
efiov, anot^ier than /, 'irepa tovtmv, different from this. 

6. Lastly, the following relations are expressed by the gen. : 
1.) The more precise sense of a general expression, 
where we say with regard to, with respect to, ^ Ey yvrara 
avTM elfiX yivovQ, I am very nearly related to him, {with 
respect to family, with regard to origin, descent,) Herod. ; 
awaLg appivtov -rrai^biv^ childless with respect to male descend- 
ants ; irapOevoQ lopaia yafxov, (7'ipe with respect to marriage,) 
marriageable; daavg ^iv^pwv ', very frequently in the ex- 
pressions wg, TTtog, oiTMg e^^^ icaXhjg, fiergiiiyg t\Hv ', ex. gr. 
uyg IviaTipog Tig evvoiag i) fivi]fir]g tyot, Thuc. ; wg irodCov 
elxov, Herod. Hither belong also the expressions, where 
av£Ka, on account of, because of, is usually supplied, ev^aifxo- 
viZfjj (T£ Tov rpoTTou, / account you happy, because of your 
disposition; okrftpw as rov waOovg, Compare the infin. 
§ 140. Obs. 4. 

2.) The relation of value ; when the value itself, or the 
price may be in the gen. [genitivus pretii.) Spaxi^rig ayopd- 
Zhv ri, to buy something for a drachm ; TrXdcrrov tovto 
TijuLwfiai, I esteem this of the greatest value ; and the mer^ 
chandise or article purchased may equally be construed in 
the gen. [genitivus mercis,) rpeig iivag KaridriKe rov 'ittttov, he 
paid three minas for the horse ; ^QW^"^^ tovtcjv irpaTTsrai, 
(he stipulates money for it,) he gets paid for it : see ad Plat. 
Meno. 28. 

3.) With the constructions of the verbs to seize, &c. (4, 
2. c.) may be compared such propositions as rrig x^'-P^^ 
aysiv Tiva, to lead him {take him) by the hand, i. e. by his 



I 



SYNTAX. 355 

hand ; lirLGTraaag tlvo. KOjwng, to drag one by the hair ; rov 
XvKov Tu)v wTLov KpaTLo, 1 hold the wolf fast by the ears ; 
iXai^ovTo Tr\Q t,^)vy]Q rov ^Op6vTr}v, ILen. Anab. 1^6, 10. But 
Xaj3av TLva x^fjoi means to seize one, lay hold of him with 
the hand. 

4.) To the question when ? but only of an indefinite time 
of some duration, (compare § 133, 3, 4.) vvktoq, -nfxipag 
TTOLuv ri, to do something by night, in the day-time; ttoWCjv 
-niuepCov ov juEfiEXlTriKa, I have not practised for several days ; 
iKslcTe ovK a(l>iKVHTaL Itu)v fivpiijjv, he will not get thither 
within 10^000 years, Plato Phaedr. 248. e. 

Ohs. 7. In this sense the prep. Trtpi, of, (Lat. de,) is sometimes omitted ; Od. A. 
173. EiVe ds fiOL Trarpog re Kai visog, where the gen. may be explained, ' this con- 
cerning my father,' for the this never needs to be expressed, when the thing itself 
follows. See the Note to Soph. Philoct. 439. 

Obs. 8. Sometimes it happens, that the word, to which the gen. refers, is omitted ; 
ex. gr. rZv ddlKMV b(ttiv, it is one of the unjust things (i. e. simply, it is an injustice). 
Hither belong also the instances of the gen. with dvai in Obs. 4. 

Obs. 9. The word oIkoq, house, is most commonly omitted on putting the name of 
the owner or tenant in the gen. ; ex. gi: sicryfisv elg 'A\Ki(3ia.dov, we went to Alci- 
hiades's {house). Hence the expression kv q.dov, tig adov, properly in or to the house 
of Hades (i.e. in or to the shades beloio). — The instances, where the article of the 
word omitted (vlbg, x^P^} &c.) is retained, are stated above, § 125, 5. 

Obs. 10. The omission is not so evident with exclamations of astonishment or so7'- 
row, sometimes with. a,n interjection, ex. gr. o'lfioi tuiv kukCjv, alas, what misfortunes! 
w Zev, rijg Travovpyiag, Jupiter, tchat cunning! and sometimes without, r^f tvxVQj 
fate! (0 wretched fate !) Trjg TraxvrijTog, tchat stupidity! 

See about the gen. [xov, coij, &c. before their sM6sf. instead of the dativus commodij 
§ 133. Obs. 5. 

§ ISS.—The Dative. 

1. The dat. properly is the opposite of the ^e^., since it de- 
notes an approximation. It is pretty nearly the same in Greek 
as in English^ and comprises similarly several relations, which 
are more distinctly expressed by the prep, for, towards, to, &c._, 
and require no explanation, as dovvai nvi, to give to one ; ex^pog 
Tivi, hostile to one ; TrdOEcrOaL tolq vofioig, and the like. 

2. Hence the dat. is used in Greek : 

1.) with verbs denoting coming together, meeting, ap- 
proaching, and where we commonly use prep., ex. gr. oiliiXhv 
TivL, to have intercourse with one; fxiywadm, KaToXXaT- 
TEaOai {to reconcile one's self with something or somebody) ; 
ixax^adai, Ipi^uv, afiiWaaOai, TroXsfiELv, and the like. 

2.) with verbs, compounded with prep., which express 
A a2 



356 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

to approach^ to meet together, or with such verbs as acquire 
a similar signification through composition^ as ir^ocr- 
eXOelv, liTLcrrpaTevEaOaif avyyiyv^aOai, diaXeyecTOaiy espe- 
cially with such verbs as denote to attack, as irpoal^aXXuv, 
tiriTiOtaOaiy iTriKUGOai. 

3.) with verbs (mostly compounded withjorejo.) denoting 
commanding, exhorting, ex. gr. irapaivuv, irapeyyv^v, vttotl- 
OeaOaL with the dat, of the person, KeXeuay, jubere, prefers 
also in Greek the construction with the accus. c. inf, 

4.) with ve7'bs denoting censure or reproach, especially 
fiifX(p^<FdaL^ linTifxav^ lyKaXalv, <^dovuv with the dat, of the 
person, 

5.) with the verbs irpiirei, ttqog^ku decet. Aa is some- 
times construed wdth the dat., sometimes with the accus, 
of the person, but always with the gen, of the thing, 

6.) with verbs denoting similarity and dissimilarity, as 
ojULoiog, IvavTiog; hence the dat. case is also used with 

6 avTog the same, 
ex, gr, ovtoq Icttlv 6 avrbg katyw, this one is the same with 
that one, 

Obs. 1. Just as we have seen above that with compar. even the indirect object of 
the comparison is in the gen.^ 6 avrbg also takes the dat. when this pronoun simply 
refers to a common third object ; ex. gr. rd avrd Trao-^w (toi, I experience the same as 
you ; 7rlvi.1v cfKo OrjXrjQ, Kara ravrd, (for to. avrd,) roXg (3ps(pe<nv, to suck the breast 
as infants ; Qt}(T£vq Kara rbv avrbv x(>ovov 'E.paK\tl ytvofJiivoQ, Theseus, who lived at 
the same time as Hercules. But here two ambiguities may arise, as rd avrd Xeyw 
iKiiv(i), I ^^y ^^^ ^^'^^^ ^^ ^''^) or the same as he says. 

7.) with words denoting any action which has a ten- 
dency to be useful or hurtful. This is the so-called dativus 
commodi et incommodi, which is known from the Latin 
grammar, but its use is in Greek of a nature by far more 
frequent and peculiar ; see Obs. 2, 3. 

8.) Peculiar is the use of the dat. with substantives, 
which are either derived from such verbs as govern that 
casus, or as admit a relation to behig useful or hurtful ; ex, 
gr. (Hes.) Ifp?] ^oaig avOpumoiaiv, — tyiv tolq (piXoig (5or)- 
Ohqv, Plat. ; — (piXia Tolg ^AOrjvaioig, Thuc, 
3. The dat. further supplies the Latin ablative, denoting, 

1.) the tool or instrument, or, in general^ that wherein 
or whereby one is or one does something {dat. instru- 
menti). The Greeks say in general ^priaQai rivi, {to make 
use of a thing,) and more particularly, ex. gr. waTarraeiv 



SYNTAX. 357 

paj3^co, to beat ivith a stick ; (jfxiXri TmroLr]p.ivov, made with a 
chisel; TiTp(L(TK£rai j3lXsi eg tov w/ulov ; ry jusy t^ovala rvpav 
ve7, Toig ^' evepytdiaig drjfxaywyu, by his power he is a rulei\ 
but by his kind acts a leader of the people ; iracn roXg tolov- 
Toig (the virtues of the Lacedaemonians having previously 
been enumerated) TralSa av i]y<](yaio aavTov. Plat. Alcib. I. 
38. roj TEKfiaipEL tovto ; see Obs. 5. 

2.) the manner, ex. gr. ravra ^yivero T(Zde tco rpoTrw, this 
happened in this manner ; Spo/x<t) irapriXOev, he came up run- 
ning ; fjisydXy (nrov^iij iravra lirpdrTeTo. 

3.) the cause or motive, where in English the prep, from, 
with, of, are used^ ex. gr. (I>6[3(i) £7rparrov; jca/xvay voVw nvl; 

riOvriKev cnroTrXr^^ia.. ov yap aypoiKia ttolCj tovto. Hence 

in general the verbs denoting the affections of the mind, as 
aXyuv TLVL, though they are more usually construed with 
ETTi and the dat., or with the accus, (See § 131, 1.) 

4.) with comparatives and verbs implying similar signi- 
fication, the degree how much any thing is better or more 
preferable than another, is placed in the dat., ex. gr, 

TToXXw ajudvojv, oXiyto fxeiZiov. duiveyKS T(f peyWei, ry 

dpeTij, &c. 

5.) a fixed definite time, (corap. § 132, 6, 4.) ex.gr. irapriv 
Tij TpLT^ Tifiipc^, he came on the third day ; tij v<TT£paia Tr)v 
f^ovXrjv eKaXovv, on the following day he assembled the senate, 

Ohs. 2. The datitus commodi et incommodi comprises that relation, which is ex- 
pressed by the dat. of almost all languages, such as it is, for instance, in Homer's 
a<T(Ta oi Kara K'SwOsQ — yeivofisvii) evrjcrav {KaT-ivTqaav)., what the fates spun for him 
(good or bad) ai /iis 6i?'f/t ; IsltviKdiii tov^^ TiXovv tffTtiXa^ev, Soph, for the sake of 
MeneJaus we proceeded on this xoyage. On this basis rests the lighter dat. com- 
jnodi et incommodi, which is added in relation to the design or will of a person, ex. gr. 
'ETTSiddv TaxKTTa av-o~iQ oi TraTdeg rd Xsyofj-eva ^vviuxjiv, as soon as her children, 
would have been sufficient here, but the avrolg refers to the expectation of the 
parents. The dat. likewise refers to the feeling or sentiment which an action excites 
in one, Plato Lgs. 'H fJn)rT]p iq, at ttouXv o ti dv j3ov\y 'iv avn] [laKapioQ yg, here 
that thou mayest he happy! was enough for the understanding, but the avTy is super- 
added for the feelings : and it is the same on speaking of a prejudice, Plato Sophist. 
Oi Trarsptg rovg vhXg TrapanvOovvrai, orav avrolg l^ajiapTdvioai, where we must 
not seek in the avrolg the precise direction of the trespass {against them, to their pre- 
judice), but merely a collateral relation to the feelings of the fathers. It is from such 
passages that we must learn correctly to understand others, where the dat. iJiot, aol, 
&c. is inserted, in a manner particularly familiar to the Greeks, merely to interest 
the feelings. There is a striking instance of this apparently useless dat. in Od. S. 
569, where Menelaus is told that the gods (564.) would send him to Elysium, 
Oiij'fK' ex^ig 'EXkvrjv, icai (T(pLV yafijSpbg Aiog ka<yi. 

Ohs. 3. It is also owing to this dathus commodi that the Greeks add the dat. to 
the proposition instead of the gen. belonging to the suhst,; Herod. 1, 31, 'Etti trig 



358 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

afid^rjQ ds o-^i 6%£fro r) iJir}Tr}p, to them, instead of their mother sat on the waggon. 
Hence there is sometimes a real gen., as if it were carelessly put after such a dat. : 
see Od. p. 231, 232. And a dat., which does not at all belong to the proposition, is 
sometimes used with words expressive of relationship and kindred, instead of the 
gen., (such as a relation, friend, guest,) Plato ^Sop/t. 216. Tou ^'svov ijinv rid'sMQ av 
TTvvOavoifiTjv. 

Obs. 4. There is a peculiarity in Greek in the way of adding an adj. or a part, to 
a dat. commodi in order to define more accurately the relation in which any object 
stands to the action of the verb ; for instance, the words tixol ijXOev are more accu- 
rately defined by adding the word a.(T[xev(iJ or r'/SofievciJ rjXOsv, i.e. i5o my joy he 
came, I loas very glad to see him. We meet with this construction very frequently 
with dvai and yiyveaOai, to which ^oyXojusx/<'^o is added ; ex.gr. el avn^ ye aoi 
(3ov\oixsv({j lariv a7roicplvea9ai,if you yourself loill answer. It is the same with 
eXTTOfxsvii), OsXovTi, rraOovvri, olkovti, axOofisvip, 7rpoadi.xofikvti). Comp. § 145, 5. 

Obs. 5. But frequently the gen. of a pronoun personal belonging to a subsequent 
subst. is used instead of the dativus commodi or incommodi, Plato Phasdo, towards the 
end, 'Edv aov (3dpug tv toIq (TKsXsai ysvijrai, where aov, which belongs to (TKtXfcn, 
stands instead of croi with the verb. — Again, Aid ri [xov dvdpidg ov khtul irvvQd- 
vovrai: here liov has its full signif., but it comes before, because it stands at the 
same time for juoi. See the Index to Plat. Meno, (kc. under Genitlvus. 

Obs. 6. The words arparid, <tt6Xoq, vrjeg, or such as denote a particular division 
of troops, as OTrXlrai, Trt^ol, &c. are usually put in the dat. without (tvv, as in 
Latin cojnis without cian, ex. gr. dcpiKovTO dicocri vav(yiv. — IjSorjOrjtrav kavriLv ts 
7revraKO(jioiQ Kat %iXt'oi£ oTrXiraig kuI rwv ^vmid'x^ojv fxvp'ioig. Thuc. 1, 107. 

Obs. 7. The pron. avrbg is frequently added to a dat. in order to supply the place 
of the prep, avv, which is omitted. This consti'uction expresses a connexion as an 
inseparable and immediate one Avith regai'd to time and space. Xen. Anab. 1, 3, 17. 
(^oj3ov[xevog) fxij rjfxag avralg ralg rpirjpeat Karadixyy. Comp. Elmsl. to Eur. Med. 
160. 

About the dat. with i\\Q pass, see the following §, No. 4. 

§ 134. — Of the Verb. — The Passive Voice, 

1. The influence of the verb in its primitive and simple form, 
that is to say in the act, voice, having been sufficiently shown in 
what has been observed of the construction of the noun, we have 
now only to notice the pass, and the middle voice. 

2. The pass, from its nature has as subject in the nomin., 
whatever is as object in the accus. with the active voice. The 
subject or nomin. of the act. now becomes the object by which 
I suffer, and when this is mentioned with the pass, in Greek, 
it is generally done by the help of the prep, virb wdth the gen. ; 
6 'Ax^XAevc KTEivu rov "E/crojoa, is in the pass. 6 "Ektijjp Krdv^rai 
viro Tov 'AxtAXiwc, Hector is killed by Achilles. 

3. Instead of vtto the py^ep. irpog, likewise with the ffen., is fre- 
quently used; Trpbg awdvTwv OepaTrtvsaOai, to be respected by all; 
and sometimes irapa, Plato Symp. 175. Olpai yap fie jrapa (tov 
(TO(l)Lag 7r\i}pio9t](Te(7dai, and ij especially by the lonians, Herod. 
El Ti Goi Kexapiapivov i^ Ipov hlwpnOn, when something agreeable 



SYNTAX. 359 

has been given to you by me; ibid. To 7roir\Qlv k tov av^^og. 
Homer uses principally viro with the dat., ex. gr. viro T(jct»£o-crt 

4. But very often the pass, is construed with the dat. only, 
without any jorejf?. ,• Demosth. Ou yap ug Trspiovcjiav iTrparr^ro 
avTOLQ TO. rrig TToXeMg, the affairs of the state loere transacted by 
them not to their own advantage: — Marr^v r\\xiv iravTa irovurai. — 
This construction is most usual wdth the peyf. pass. KaXwc 
XiXsKTai Goi, it has been beautifully said by you, i. e. you have 
beautifully said. 

Ohs. 1. The Greeks make a very frequent use of this joass. construction to supply 
the perf. act., which in many verbs occurs little or not at all, as just now \s\exa, 
which would have been required in the foregoing expression ; see § 97- Obs. 6. — That 
this construction is liable to frequent ambiguities, is unquestionable, {Trdvra aoi 
'KkXticrai, you have said all, — all has been said to you) — but a careful attention to 
the context easily removes the ambiguity. 

5. According to the general rule it is only the nearest object, 
in the accus. with the act. voice, which can become the subject 
of the pass. ; and this rule is strictly observed by the German, 
Latin, and other languages. But as many an object, which in 
Greek stands with the act. in the gen. or dat., actually is from 
its nature its nearest object, or at least can readily be under- 
stood as such, djuLeXuv rivog, to be neglectfid of one, ttlgt^vuv tlvi, 
to give credit to one, the Greeks allow themselves to say like- 
wise in the pass, ra tovtov irpayjiara afjie\i7rai vtto tCjv 0£wv, 
{are neglected by the gods,) 6 xl^eixjTr^g ov Tnarev^rai, {the liar is 
not credited,) whilst in German we must say, to the liar no cre- 
dit is given, &c. 

6. The pass, in Greek may also be construed with an accus. 
Whenever the act. (according to § 131, 5.) has two accus,, and 
the accus. of the person becomes the subject of the pass., the 
accus. of the thing continues to be used for the object of the 
pass. ; ex. gr. ol wald^g dL^daKovraL Gii)(l>goGvvY]v, the boys are 
taught modesty ; dcpaip^Oaig rrjv dpxrjv, ivho has had the command 
taken from him. 

7. The two last-mentioned instances are frequently found 
combined in one proposition, so that the dat. of the person, 
which stands as the more remote object with the act., becomes 
the nomin. of the pass., and the accus. of the act. continues to be 
the object of the pass., ex. gr. iTrirpi-Kuv rw ^w/cpartt Tyiv ^lai- 
rav, {to entrust the arbitration to Socrates,) becomes 6 Swfcpctrrjc 
£7rirp£7r£rai ri)v ^lairav, Eurip, rijv S' £k x^9^^ dpirdtiofiai, she is 



860 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

snatched away from my hands, Plato Tim. 60. To St viro Trupoc 
TO voTEpov TTCLv l^aQTTaadlv, this from ivhich all moisture has been 
withdrawn by the fire; diXrog eyyeypafifiivt) ivv9f}juara: — v7ro 
TToXsLjg Ti]v riysiuLOviav TreiricTTevTO : — npo/ir^Oevg vtt' derov tKUpero 
TO rjirap (where KeipEiv signifies to tear from) : — kicoTrac Tovg 
6(l)9aXjuovg, 

Obs. 2. Respecting the accus. case with the pass, mice, see § 136. Obs. 1. The 
a^cus. in those instances quoted above in No. 6, and similar ones, (see § 135, 4.) has 
nothing peculiar in itself. It is merely the idea of teaching or of taking away, which, 
independent of the pass, and middle wice, demands an accus. for its object. The 
German language is not capable of this construction, but we meet with it in Latin, 
ex. gr. humus poscebatur segetes. The verb in some instances (like the act. ac- 
cording to § 131, 3.) governs even as pass, an accus., which contains the import of 
the verb as subst., to add an additional determination adjectively ; rvTrrtrai irXriyaQ 
TToXXdg, he is struck many strokes. 

8. That the verbal adjectives in reog and rog are pass, by their 
nature follows from § 102. Obs, 3. and about their signification 
see ibid. 

9. Precisely on account of this their pass, nature^ (the verbal 
adj. rog, however, merely when it conveys the idea oi possibility, 
compare below Obs, 6.) they refer in their connexion to the 
subject of the act., which is in the dat, in the way mentioned 
above, at 4. eon. gr, Tof/ro oi> prjrov Igti fxoi, this is not to be 
spoken by me, i.e. I dare not say it, 'H iroXig ox^eXrjrla (toi Igti, 
the state must be assisted by you, i. e. you must be useful to the 
state. But frequently this relation, as being of a more general 
nature, is omitted, w^hen the sense is, one must, one can ; Avriog 
6 ToiovTog vofiog /cat ovk lariog Kvpiog uvai, this law must be 
abolished, and not permitted to be valid. 

10. The neut. reov in this way, with or without IgtXv, corre- 
sponds to the Latin nomin. neut. in dum, Xf/crlov eotiv, or merely 
XiKTiov, it must be said, one must say ; it then assumes all the 
relations and connexions of the verb, ex. gr. dpeTrjv ex^iv Trsipa- 
Tiov, one must endeavour to be virtuous ; ToXg Xoyoig irpoaeKriov 
Tov vovv, one must apply the mind to the speeches ; tuvtu irdvTa 
TTOLT^riov /ULOL, all tMs must be done by me, I have all this to do. 
The corresponding use of the neut. top (but without any such 
verbal connexions) is, ex. gr. jStwroy Ian, one can live ; Tolg ou/c 
e^iTov Igtl, who cannot go out, Hesiod. 0. 732. 

Obs. 3. The Attics employ the verbal tsov in the same sense in the pi. : (iadiffrka, 
it is necessary to go ; avvtKTTors lori tijv rpvya, the lees must be drunk along icith it, 
(Compare § 129, 1.) 

06s. 4. Another Attic peculiarity is the verbal adj. in rkov, which, as it were by 



I 



SYNTAX. 361 

virtue of its intrinsic meaning del, sometimes has the subject of the act. in the accus. 
instead of the dat., Plato Gorg. 507- Tov (3ovX6jj.svov evdainova dvai Goj(ppoavvT]V 
SicuKTsov Kai dcTKrjTsov (Heind. ad Plat. Phcedr. 128). 

Ohs. 5. Verba deponentia (§ 113.) being also employed passheli/ in some of their 
foi*ms, also give verbal adj. in the same sense as if they came from regular actives ; 
spyd^ofxai, I work, epyacrrbv, what can be worked, or is worked, spyaarkov, one viust 
work, the work must he done. Even in some terbs, whose 2^<^<-ss- oi' med. assumes a 
signif., which may be considered as a new simple meaning, and as active, the verbal 
adj., in some current or familiar connexions, also has both meanings, that which 
proceeds from the real active, and that which proceeds from the ^x^ss. or med. ; 
TTSiarkov one must convince, from tthQu), and one must obey, from TreiOofxai. — But it 
is very remai'kable that in rpsTroixai, (/ turn to, go to,) the aor. 2. pass, krpdnrjv 
for-ms a particular verbal adj. in this sense, TpaTrrjrkov. 

Obs. 6. The verbal adj. in toq have sometimes the same signification, but not the 
same construction with the part. perf. pass. ; for with regard to the latter it is a 
mere adjective ; ex. gr. TronjTog made, ttXektoq plaited, arpfKroQ twisted. 

§ l^^.—The Middle Voice. 

1. Before we enter on the use of the middle voice, we must 
exclude all verbs deponeiit properly so called^ for with regard to 
their signification they have become real actives. On the other 
hand we must not exclude such middle voices^ as take their 
aorist from the passive voice, a part of w^hich we have already 
enumerated in § 113. Obs. 5. 

2. The main signification of the medium is 7'eflective. A verb 
has a complete reflective signif. whenever the subj. of that verb 
is at the same time its immediate object, which in the active 
voice stands in the accus. Thus, for instance, Xovfiai is equivalent 
to eyu) Xoviv £^£ or Ifiavrov, I wash myself, I bathe. But it must 
be remembered, that this first and proper meaning constitutes 
a real medium only in a very limited number of verbs. When 
the same relation is to be expressed in any other verb, it can 
only be done by means of the reflective pronoun, IfiavTov, kavrov, 
&c. 

Examples of real media are : d7ray)(£o-0at, to stranyle one^s self ; 
awex^adai, to keep ones self off, to abstain ; afxvytadai, to defend one's 
self; (pvXaTTEcrdcu, to guard one's self against any thing, to take care ; 
eyyvdadai, to bail one's self (to become bail) ; Kpeixavvvcdcu and its 
compounds, to hang one's self ; TrapaaKsvai^Effdai, to arm one's self, and 
those verbs which denote an operation on one's own body, and where 
in the active voice to a^fxa may be supplied instead of the accus. of the 
person, ex. gr. Xovcrdai, y^pieadai, yvjiva^eadai, hcvaaaQai, cnrofjiupypv- 
adai, KEipeffdai, (7T£(})avovcrdat, 



363 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

3. Many verbs lose their original reflective meaning, and 
become either real intransitives or are at least translated in an 
intransitive way, for want of a corresponding reflective ex- 
pression. 

Examples : (rriWeiy, to send; creXXecrQai, to send one^s self to some 
place, i. e. to travel; ^aivvadai, to feast. The case is the same with 
iropeveadai, to travel; (paireaQai^ to appear; iraveadai, to cease; ttXci- 
^eadai, to wander, to rove ; Evio-^^eiadai, to feast ; KoifLaadai, to rest. 

Ohs. 1. These media bear the same relation to their act. xerhs as the immediate 
verbs do to the causatives ; hence thei'e are some passlw-media, which having such 
a simple signif. appear exactly like deponents, as yevofiai, I taste, ar]7rofiai, I rot, 
iXiToixai, I hope, of which the actives, which seldom occur, can be expressed only 
by a circumlocution with causing to : ysvo), I cause to taste, give to taste ; arjirw, I 
cause to rot, make putrid ; eXttw, / cause to hope, give hopes. See also fiaivofiai in the 
Anom. 

4. But the medium also becomes a verb transitive just as easily 
and may have in most cases an object in the accus. with it. This 
is most readily the case, when the active is construed with two 
accus., in which instance one of these continues with the medium, 
ex. gr. Ivdixjj riva ^iTbJva, I put a coat on one, evdvofiaL ^^rcova, / 
put a coat on myself. To this class belong most verbs de- 
noting an operation on one's own body, though in German one 
of the accus. casus, expressing the person, is to be translated 
with the dat. 

Examples. 'iaaaaQai, to put on clothes, KEipeaQai, to cut one^s hair 
{ex. gr. KeipofXUL rrjy K5^a\?)r, for Kiipoj sfxe t))i' k:.) arrecjyavovadai, 
dTrojjiopYyvcTdai, Xovadai {ex. gr. rag ^(fTpac, i. e. one's own), vTrodijcraff- 
6ai and viroXveaOai, to put on or to take off {one's shoes), eyKaXvirreadai, 
to wrap one's self up, and others. 

5. But the medium may also have an object of its own, when 
a new meaning, as we have just seen, arises from the reflective 
action of the verb, which is conceived as transitive; irepaiovv 
TLva, to carry over {across a river), med. irepmovaOai, (properly 
to carry one's self over,) to cross over, pass. ; hence it then has 
the river in the accus., Tr^paiovaOm rov Tiypiv, to cross the Tigris, 

Examples, (poftelp Tiva, to frighten any one, ({)ol3e~iadai, (properly 
to frighten one's self,) to fear, likewise (poj3e7adaL tovq deovg, to fear the 
gods; riXXeiv, to pluck, riXXeadai, to pluck ones self, to pull out one's 
own hair ; and as this is an action by which one mourns over a person, 
TiXXeadai rira, to mourn over any one {by pulling out one's own hair), 



SYNTAX. 363 

al(T')^vveiy, to shame, to confound^ alffxvi'eadai riva, to feel shame in the 
jpresence of somebody ; (pvXcKraEadai tlvci, to be on one's guard against 
somebody. That all these verbs adopt in the middle voice a new 
meaning, is very obvious from our not being able to substitute for 
alffxyyofiai as the words cda^vvLo efii ae. It is the same with a'/juj 
crdai TLva, to defend one's self against somebody. 



n'E- 



6. In all the instances mentioned, the medium arises from 
the usual trans, construction of the act. with the acciis. {(poj3ov~ 
fim, for lytb (pojdu) fis). But just as (according to § 134, 5, 7.) 
the pass, proceeds sometimes from the construction with the 
more remote object, namely the dat., so does the medium; and 
the other object, which was in the accus. with the act., is put in 
the accus. also with the medium, ex. gr. 7rpocnroiri(jaL rivi n, to 
acquire something for any one, [ex. gr. a country for a state,) 
'7rpo(j7roii](Ta(j6aL ri, to acquire for one's self appropriate to one's 
self. — Hither belong the great number of middle voices, in 
which the more reflective meaning becomes less and less promi- 
nent ; it is often merely hinted at by the form of the verb that 
something happens which may be hurtful or useful to the subj., 
or that the action of the verb stands in some inward relation to 
the subj. Thus for instance OeXvai vofxovg, to impose laivs, ap- 
plied to a conquered state, where the conqueror is not subject 
to the law^s, whilst OiaOaL vo/^ouc means to propose laws, said of 
a state, which gives to itself its own laws ; — aTi]aa(jQai rgoirmov, 
bIkovq, to erect a trophy, a statue to one's self, for one's own 
d^eds. Though it be true that Greek writers do not always 
strictly observe this difference, since in these cases they often 
use the active instead of the medium, still they rigidly observe 
this difference in so far as they never use the middle voice where 
the active ought only to be employed, that is to say, where 
the action stands in no inward relation whatever to the subject 
of the verb. (Compare below, text 8.) 

Examples : Tvopii^EaQai rt, to procure something for one's self, i. e. to 
acquire or obtain something; KXaUerdat, to bewail, to lament, ex.gr. 
-a TTciOr], one's own sufferings ; but KXaletv to. irddr} tivoq, to bewail the 
sufferings of another ; — aviinayov rroieTadat rivet, to make an ally of some 
one; — KaTaaT^aaadaL (pvXaKac, to place guards; — aipecrdai, to fake up 
something, ex. gr. TToXepor, to undertake a war; crvraipeadai -lil 7r6Xe}xov, 
to share the dangers of war with somebody, i. e. to support another in a 
ivar ; — svpiaKoiJiai, I find for my own use, i. e. I get (nanciscor) ; — 



364 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

ayecdai yvvaiKa, to take a wife ; — KXrjpojffacrdaif to win by drawing lots; 
KaraTrpaTTEadai, to execute, to do something on one's own behalf; — - 
ElaKofili^eadai, to get for one's self or for one's own kindred, for in- 
stance, to ^procure provision for a town, and the same with ei^Kofjiii^e.aOai ; 
— hadiadaL to. Trjg TroXeojg. — Hence the ideas of pushing something 
away (from one's self), or of disdaining, despising, are usually expressed 
by the middle voice : aVoo-wo-aaOat, d-KOKpovaaadai, aTrodiadai, and 
many others compounded with aVo, irpoiadai, 7rpo(5a\\e(xdai, &c. 

06s. 2. Thus it comes that a verb having two accus. in the active, may retain 
both in the middle voice, whenever a relation to the subject of the verb is to be pointed 
out. Airoj as rovro, I ask this of you (leaving it undetermined whether it be for my- 
self or for another person) ; but airoi'ixai as rovro can only mean, / request this of 
you for myself. This construction however occurs but rarely ; see Schneider on 
Xen. Anab. I. 1. 10. 

7. The medium expresses a reciprocal action just as fre- 
quently; vEfiecrOai, to distribute amongst ourselves, diaXiysdOai, 
to converse {with each other). 

Examples : (jovXeveadai, ^laWdrTeadai, uirivlsaQai, (nroi^^OTroieiadai, 
ciaXvaraardaL ; besides all verbs denoting to differ, to quarrel : 
cia(l)€peadai, KpivEoQai, ^laKOprii^etrdai, Sia^oparic^effdai, dKpoj3oXi^€adai, 
(piXoTiiJLeladai, dyiovii^eadai, which for the most part, as ^dyEaQai, change 
into the signification of a deponent. 

8. Another kind of reflective action is when something is done 
to me or for me by my orders, which is expressed in English by 
the verb ^ to get,' ' to get a thing done.' Thus Ku^ofxat signifies 
I shave myself, but also I get myself shaved ; the pass. Kaprivai 
refers only to a state of passiveness, ' to be shorn,' like a sheep. 
Here too the more remote relation occurs; TrapariOefxaL rpd- 
TTsZav, I get a table set before me ; fxicrOod), I let out for hire, 
fiLGOov/uai Ti, T hire for myself; ^i^aZaaOai viov, to get one's son 
taught ; KaTadiKaaaL tlvu, to condemn one, /carcSfkacra/ijjv avrov, 
as it were^ / have got him. condemned to my advantage^ i. e. 
I had him cast, I won a law-suit against him. But we also 
meet with a medium of this kind even without any reference to 
the subject, when it ought to be rendered simply by the infin, 
act. with the verb 'to cause' or Ho get ;' Cyrop. \, 4, 18. where 
it is said that the young Cyrus took the arms, a 6 irainroQ 
iireTToirjTo, which his grandfather had got made. Hence TrpEcrjdLvw, 
I go as ambassador, TrpeajdEvoiiai, I send ambassadors, 

Obs. 3. The above instances are sufficient to give a general idea of the reflective 



SYNTAX. 365 

I^ower of the middle voice, and to show that the nature of the relation to the subject 
always is determined by the nature of the Terb, and by the context, which must 
be learned by practice and comparison. But it must be observed that the relation 
to the subject frequently is very remote and weak, so that its designation might be 
omitted without impairing the sense, especially when it is pointed out by the 
nature of the verb itself ; and in some verbs and individual instances, the relation 
has completely vanished ; ex.gr. idtlv and the poetical IdsaOai are exactly the same, 
and so are in prose aTro^aivtivand cnrocpaiveaOai, to manifest, prove ; 7rap£%fiv and 
7rapsxi<y9ai, to afford. The medium is also often used to express some shades of 
meaning, or in combination with collateral signif., as in aipeXv, to take, aipelaOai, to 
select: Xa^nv and Xa(3a(79ai, and others. But these instances must be particularly 
treasured in the memory, like other peculiarities and anomalies of the language ; 
this requires a careful attention, because a relation may be imperceptible to us, 
which was instantly perceived by the Greeks. 

Obs. 4. But it must not be supposed that there actually is a middle voice for every 
verb, which from its nature and signif, is susceptible of one. The best Dictionaries 
must be consulted whether a verb has a medium, and whether this medium has a 
particular signif. 

Obs. 5. When the more remote relation to the subject is, for the sake of distinc- 
ness or emphasis, expressed by a pronoun, (like ffiavrov, Ifxbg, &c.) the medium, if 
there be any, is still employed, though it is not requisite in that case. Thus 
Demosth. for instance (in Mid.) says, TeypafXfiai ifxavTi^ ravra, I have noted that 
down. 



1 § 136. 

1. The verba media, which take their aor. from the pass. 
voice, are enumerated in § 113. Obs. 5. The number of those, 
which appear more or less as verbs passive, might still be in- 
creased, were it altogether possible to draw a strict line of 
demarcation between the verbs passive and middle; for the 
signification of the tenses preponderates either to the middle or 
to the passive voice according to the usage of speech, although 
grammar distributes the forms of them partly among the one 
and partly among the other. 

2. The construction of the object in the accus. is far from 
being decisive, whether a verb be passive or middle, since 
both these voices admit of this construction, for instance 7]aKr]' 
6r]v Trjv Tiyyr]v, I exercised myself, may be translated into our 
language in the middle form, yet in Greek it might have been 
conceived in the passive. 

Obs. 1. Respecting this accus. of an object, we have further to remark, that all 
those passive and middle verbs, which have an object in the accus., may be considered 
as representing new intransitive ideas ; their construction then coincides with 
that of verbs intransitive of the active form, which so frequently are construed with 
an accus. case. Hence we may state the rule in this manner : in all intransitive 
verbs, whether of the active, passive, or middle voice, the noun, to which the import of 



366 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

the verb refers, is put in the accus., therefore aXyw rag yvdOovg, ai<rxvvoixai <je, 
7r\r]TT0[jt.ai rrjv Ke(pa\i]v, Sec. 

Obs. 2. The more ancient language uses in many instances the ao7'. of the middle 
voice, where the modern one uses that of the ^assife; ex.gr. i^pacrdfiijv, kKoiixr](Td[xriv', 
in some verbs the aoi: has a pecuhar signification, ex. g7\ OTsWeaOai, to travel, 
(TToKrivaL ; (rrsXXeaOai, to clothe one's self, and also to send for, aTt'CkaaBai. 

Obs. 3. When the aor. med. is in use, the aor. pass, may also be used as the pass. 
of a peculiar signif. of the med. ; ypa^Big, written, from ypdcpHV, but also accused, 
from Ypd(pE(T6ai, ypdtpaaOai, to accuse. 

Obs. 4. The use of the fut. med., and even in some few cases of the aor. med. in- 
stead of that of the pass., has been stated above, § 113, 5. 

3. That the perf. and plusq. pass, exactly like the pres, are 
the real perf. s.nd^ plus q. med., is unquestionable from a great 
many examples, of which we had two^ in the preceding Section, 
8. — ETTfTTotrjro, and Obs. 5. yiyQafifiai'. Cyrop. 7,S, 14. 'A/ctva/crjv 
TraXm Tra^eo-fctuaa/ievrj acparrn eavrijv, having long before provided 
herself with a sword, she killed herself; 7, 2, 12. haTTSTrpajfjiai, 
I have obtained, accomplished ; Isocr. liridiSeLyimevoQ tyjv Trovrjpiav, 
having given a specimen of his malice; Xenoph. Symp. S, 
25. juefiitjOcofjiivog ')(^b)pov, one who has taken a piece of land in 
farm, &c. 

See § 113. Obs. 3. and 4. compared with § 97, 5. and Obs. 5. about the jyel^. 2. 
commonly called p^r/. med. 

§ 137.-0/ the Tenses, 

The two tenses aor. and fut. III. are peculiar to the Greek 
language. Of the latter we shall treat in § 138., but to know 
the nature of the aor. we must compare the other prcEterites. 

1. The perfect tense is to be separated from all other j9r<^- 
terites, as it is not used in narration. It partakes of the nature 
of the present, and is distinguished from it only in so far as 
the present denotes an action as not yet accomplished or as 
still taking place during the present time, whilst the perfect 
denotes an action as wholly accomplished and terminated, 
though likewise in the present time. It merely connects what 
has happened, as past, with the present time ; ex. gr. I know 
it, for I have seen it. This connexion with the present time 
may not always be expressed, but the perf. by itself alone 
conveys the idea of it. / have seen it, i. e. / am one of those 
who saw it. Now that I speak, it is already over, it has hap- 
pened. 

2. The tenses used in narration are the aor., imperf and 
plusqp. Of these the imperf. and plusqp. narrate with refer- 



SYNTAX. 367 

ence to some other fixed time, the aor, however without any 
such reference or presupposition. Any narration given with 
the aor. carries the mind to the past, and brings the events 
successively one after another before the hearer or reader, 
without pointing out the time in which the related events stand 
to each other, ex. gr. Uvppog 6 fiaaiXevg odevtjv Ivirvx^ kvvI 
(ppov^ovvTi veicpov — KaX EKiXevcrs jueO^ iavrov KOiui^BiVy and so on. 
But in the midst of the narrative it is sometimes necessary to 
state the circumstances by which the thing, which happened, 
was attended, when it happened ; this is done by means of the 
imperf., 'OAtyatc Ss vaTEpov rjjuepaig t^lrao-ic ^v t^cu irapriv 6 kvojv, 
iSwv dl Tovg (poveag sSeS^ajue, (this again aor.) and so on ; and if 
that which was also already past, or had already happened at 
that time, is connected with the narrative, it is done by means 
of the plusq. 

3. But if the reference to time be sufficiently apparent from 
the context, the aor, may also be used instead of the perf.j and 
in the narrative instead of the plusq., ex. gr. Xen. Memor. 1, 
6, 14. Socrates says, Hovg driaavgovg riov iraXai cro^wv, ovg eK^TvOL 
KarlXiTTOv Iv j3if5Xioig ypa^avreg, Siipxojuai, where the sense ob- 
viously requires the per/., which they have left behind in books. 
In every discourse in which there is much mention made of the 
past, and always in such a way that the mind connects it with 
the pres., the Greeks most generally use the aor. instead of 
the perf, which is generally used alone in our modern lan- 
guages ; and it is only when the speaker lays a particular 
stress on the time of an occurrence, that the Greek employs 
the perf, and in a narrative the plusq. : all this is, however, 
greatly influenced by euphony. The uncertainty, or indefinite 
notion, from which the aor. derives its name, is properly limited 
to the time past. 

Obs. 1. The aor. is used instead of the plusq., Cyrop. 5, 1. her husband teas am- 
bassador in Bactria,"E7reixips de avTov 6 'A.g(jvqioq Trept (jvjxiJia'x,ic(g,had sent Mm; 
Thuc. Oi 'AOrj^aXoi ev9vg tTreiSrj avix^^i']'^'^^ — ^vixfjiaxoi syevovro. Poets use this 
aor. far moi^e frequently than the plusq. itself. Whenever a duration of time or a 
rep>etition of what has happened is to be expressed, the hnperf. may be also used 
instead of the plusqp. in modei'n languages. Compare Krueger on Xen. Anab. I. 1, 6. 

4. The idea of one thing taking place simultaneously with 
another, is nearly connected with that of duration. Hereby it is 
not meant, that any thing, which takes place simultaneously 
with another, must really occupy a certain length of time ; it 



368 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

simply means, that it is to be conceived as something lasting, 
on account of its occurring, during the time that something 
else happens, should even that action fill but the space of a 
moment ; ex. gr. all were asleep, when a scream was heard; 
or / was just opening my mouth to call for him, when he entered. 
Hence arose a second usage of the imperf in Greek, according 
to which this tense is employed Avhenever the related occurrence 
is to be described as of some duration, but the aor. whenever 
it is to be conceived as only momentary ; ex. gr. Xen. Anab. 
5, 4, 24. roue p^y ovv TTsXracTTag Ide^avTO ol /3ap/3apof, {they re- 
ceived them, MOMENTARY,) /cat IjuaxovTo (and were fighting with 
them, A DURATION,) £7r£t S' eyjvg riaeiv ol oTrXtraf, {as they ap- 
proached, NATURAL IMPERF.,) erpaiTovTO, {they took to flight, 
MOMENTARY,) Kat OL TTeXTadTOL evOvg eiTrovro [pwsued them, dura- 
tion). This often points to a difference in the sense, which 
is easily overlooked ; for when it is said, for instance, 'O kvmv 
kE^idpajuLE, KoX KuOvXcLKrei avrovg, it necessarily conveys the idea of 
a continued barking ; but if the expression be KaOvXaKTria^, it 
would be the barking of an instant, as momentary as the l^i- 
cpajuev. The imperf. is thus constantly employed, when some- 
thing, which was customary or done habitually or frequently, is 
related of a time ivhich is gone by ; MiXwv 6 KpoTwvidrrjg ijaOis 
juvag KpEu)v eiicocn, Milo of Crotona ate twenty minas of meat, 
i. e. used to eat. 

5. This difference between what is momentary, and what 
implies a duration, occurs also in the time present, and in the 
future. The language, however, has no double form for it in 
the indie, but in the dependent moods the Greek language 
can always make the distinction. Of these, 

the moods of the^er/! 2iXi^ future 
express the time of their indie. '; but 

the moods of the pres. and aor. 
do not mark any time whatever '. In this case there is a 
double form, which is perfectly indifferent with regard to time, 
Tvirreiv or rvipai, «^fXiJ^ or ^fX/yo-^jc? &c. ; and the Greek writers 



•» 



* The moods of the aor, however have sometimes the signif. of what is past, as 
for instance in Aristoph. Ran. 1416. rov 'irepov XafSojv olttei, 'iv eXOyg fiij fidrnv, 
that thou mightest not have come in vain. The infiuit. is frequently to be understood 
in a similar manner, as in Xen. Anab. III. 1, 6. vTroTrrevaag firj rt Trpbg rijg 
rroXsojQ, oi vTrairiov thi Kvpq) (p'ikov ytvioQai, i. e, ti Kvpti) ^iXog ysj/oiro. — For the 
pat't. of the aor. see text G. and for the conj. aor. instead of the Latin fut. exact. 
§ 139, 4. 



SYNTAX. 369 

avail themselves of this double form, so as to employ chiefly 
the moods of the pres. tense to denote an action or occurrence 
of some duration, and the moods of the aor. for a momentary 
one. For instance, when Demosth. says, {Phil. I. p. 44.) 
TpLYjpeig TrevTr]KOVTa TrapaaKevaaaaOai (^yijil ^uv, ut avrnvg ovtio 
Tcig yvdjjLiag e'x^'i'? he wants the men of war to be immediately 
equipped, hence the momentary aor. ; but the feeling or disposi- 
tion, which he recommends by jvajjiaQ '^x^iv, has some duration. 
Again, (p. 45.) "Iv' rj dia tov <j}6(5ov — 7](yv\iav tx^J, V TTQpi^ibv 
ravra a(pvXaKTog \r](pdij, it is obvious that here too t^V ^^^ ^ 
duration, and \i\(^Bij is momentary. The case is the same with 
the imper. (p. 44, init.) ^^iru^av cnravra aKov(jr]TE, Kpivar^, koL 
jurj TTpoTEpov irpoXaiifdaveTe. Here the moment of KpivaTs is dis- 
tinctly marked, but the forming of an opinion is something 
gradual, which the speaker did not conceive as momentary in 
his mind; hence irpoXajuf^avErs. See Herm. ad Viger., w. 165. b. 
But the distinction frequently depends altogether on the view 
of the speaker or writer, and in numberless passages it is 
perfectly indifferent whether we have Xiyeiv or Xi^ai, Xtye or 
Xtjov. The distinction, however, is not the less true on the 
whole. 

Ohs. 2. Even an action of a long duration may be in the aor. in the dependent 
moods, whenever its completion is taken into the account, and considered as its final 
purpose ; Plato Crit. 15. Twv Traidojv evsKa ^ovXet Z,yv, 'iva avrovg iKOps^yg Kal 
TraidevcTyg, 

6. The pai't. of the aor. constantly denotes time past, and 
becomes a complete pa7^t. perf. ; cnrojdaXcbv, who has lost, and 
consequently now possesses no longer, — jmaOwv, ivho has learnt, 
and consequently knows, — davu)v, who has died, dead — ol 
TTfcrovrecj those who fell, the dead. 

Ohs. 3. Thus Demosth. (in Mid. 52. p. 576.) the true autJior of a speech full of 
merited reproaches, "O Tragtaxn^wQ ra epya — ovx o kcKimxEvog ovd' 6 nspifxvijaag 
TO. SiKuia X'synv, i. e. is he ivho has provided the deeds for it, not he icho has prepared 
himself, and taken care to say what is proper. Here w^e have [xspifivricrag quite 
parallel with the tenses of the perf, evidently for the purpose of avoiding the less 
pleasing sound of [linepiixvTjKwg. 

Ohs. 4. All that has been observed of the aor. refers chiefly to the Attic 
writers. In Homer the distinction between the tenses is not yet so mai'ked, and 
the imjjerf. in particular is still frequently confounded with the aor., v^'hich was 
only, as it were, at its birth. We leave the examples of this assertion to the indi- 
vidual observation of the learner 2. In Herod, too, (and perhaps in the Ionic 

2 We will, however, point out a few passages, where the hnperf is connected with 
aor. without any difference in the action legitimating the distinction, II. a. 437, 438, 

B b 



370 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

dialect in general,) the hnperf. is often used in a progressive narration as an aor., 
that is to say, for the relation of momentary occurrences, of which the existence 
with other events does not necessarily appear from the context, 3, 28. tKoXis, 
UsXeve, and frequently rjpwra, dfieil3ero, &c. 

Obs. 5. Whenever any habitual occurrence, or any customary event, is mentioned, 
without its being an express narrative, the Greeks frequently have, instead of the 
pres., by which it is stated in other languages and even the Greek itself, the aor. 
(which then marks a7i indefinite time in the strictest sense,) Demosth. Olynth. 2. 
Mifcpor TTTaXa/xa avexairicrE ical disXv(rs Trdvra, a small mistake overthrows and de- 
stroys all again ; Mid. 21. O?!; ydp rj TrXriyri Trapkarriae t)]v dpyrjv, dXK' r/ drifiia, 
ovde TO TVTTTsaOai — kari Seivbv, dXXd to k(p' vfSpei, where earl shows how the 
preceding Trap'scrTtjas is to be understood. Isocr. Paneg. 12. (speaking of the great 
games and meetings of the Greeks, contrasted with the continual concourse of 
people at Athens,) Ai fxev dWai TravTjyvpeiQ did ttoXXov %povow GvWeyiiaai 
raxBojg SieXvOrjaav, r) dk k. t. \. See also Heind. ad Plat. Phced. 49. 

Obs. 6. There is another instance where the aor. seems to be used instead of the 
pres., viz. the indie, aor. after the question rt ov ; ex. gr. Tt owk siroirjaaiisv ; 
literally, * why have we not done this?' i. e. let us do this ! Ti ovk tippaaag, i. e. tell 
me instantly. (See Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 126.) 

Obs. 7. The Greeks obtained a great latitude in the choice of tenses by intro- 
ducing again the pres. in a narration, whenever the true time is evident from the 
context, and not only by means of the prcesens historicum, as it is used in other 
languages, to add to the liveliness of the narrative, but in the midst of a propo- 
sition, for instance in Xen. Anab. 1, 7, 16, it is related, that the army of Cyrus came 
to a ditch, and then he immediately adds, TavTrjv Se Ttjv Td^pov ^aaiXevg fisyag 
TToisX dvTi ipvixaroQ, tizeidrj TTvvOdvsTai Kvpov TrpoatkavvovTa. Any other lan- 
guage would necessarily have used the j9?t;sg. twice. The case is similar with re- 
gard to the indicat. in intercalated sentences obliquely introduced. See the general 
remark, Obs. 3. in § 139, after H. 

Obs. 8. There are some verbs, the present of which comprises the signif. of a 
2')erf. Hither belong particularly tjkm, I am come, i. e. I am here ; ex. gr. Plat. 
Criton. init. dprt ijKSLg ri TrdXai ; in the same way otxojiiat, I am gone, I am off, 
whereby the imperf. (^x^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ appearance of a plusq. And usually the pres. 
of the verbs denoting to hear, to learn, {dKovoj, TvwQdvoiiat, jjLavQdvu), alaQdvo^ai,) 
is used Avhere we employ the perf. Again, t'ikthv Tivd has, besides the signif. of 
begetting, that of being the parent of any one, whence it must be frequently under- 
stood as a perf. : ttoXXov at Ovrjrolg d^iov t'iktei Trarrjp. 

Obs. 9. And just as there are in every language certain expi-essions introduced, 
particularly in daily intercourse, which appear conti'ai'y to its general laws, because 
their natural origin has been obscured by time, there are in Greek expressions, 
which cannot be brought under the rules stated about the use of the tenses ; they 
must be remembered without disturbing the rules derived fi-ora the agreement of the 



465. /3. 43 — 45, For it would be absurd to suppose that the. landing of the sailors, 
cutting the meat, using the large mantle, had been conceived in the mind of the 
poet as occurrences of some duration, while leading out a number of animals to be 
sacrificed, putting so many pieces of meat on the spits, girding on the sword, 
should have been thought momentary by the same mind ; and XilTtt, (3. 107, com- 
pare 106, is still more decisive. But it must be acknowledged, on an attentive 
perusal of Homer, that most of the decided imperf. mixed in the narration denote 
the repetition of actions which are necessarily of some duration, and that we do not 
easily meet in Homer with aor. where there is a co-existence in the time, or where it 
is a repeated action. 



I 



SYNTAX. 371 

language in all the rest. Hither belong the rjv apa instead of the pj'es. in arguntien- 
tative observations. See Heind. ad Plat. Phced. 35. originally probably, ' thus it 
always was, (and is still,) . . . and I observed it not,' and further in conversation some 
isolated aor. 1. pers. instead of the usual pres. as ilcrOrjv, iirrjvtaa, to express the 
decided sensation or feeling attendant on the action. See Herra. ad Vig. 162. and 
Buttm.'s Note to Soph. Phlloct.- 1289, 1314. See also the Epic eTrXero in the Amm. 

TTSXOJ. 

Obs. 10. The circumstance that the pres. and imperf. constantly denote a duration 
without completion, has given birth to the custom by which several verbs, of which 
the action is only completed through the concurrence of another individual, as one's 
giving by another accepting, one's sending away by another going away, are used in those 
tenses merely of one part of the action, or as is said de conatu, (which expression, 
however, is neither accurate nor sufficient,) Herod. 7, 221. Aeojvidrjg <pavep6g kari, 
(here tantamount to rjv, according to Obs. 7.) tov ixavTiv aTroTrsinrujv, 'iva fit) 
(TvvaTToXijTai <j(pi, 6 de aTroTTifXTrofxsvog avrbg fx&v ovk drrsXnrs, {forsook him not,) 
TOV 8e TTalda — a7r£7r£/x;p6, where the last aor. forms the antithesis or contrast to the 
preceding pres. Thus diSaxri, eSidov, must frequently be rendered by offering ; 
TTsiOti is properly only suadet, not persuadet. Consult the examples stated in the 
Index to Demosth, Mid. sub voce Prcesens. 

Obs. 11. The verb fjisXXsiv with an infin. is used in a periphrastic sense for the 
simple fut., with this distinction, that by the fut. the action of the verb is removed 
to a, future indefinite time, but by the circumlocution with fi'sXXnv, the pei'iod is fixed 
from which the action of the verb is to be conceived as taking place ; hence fiiXXoj 
TvoiHv (/ am (now) one icho shall do it). — This verb conveys at the same time the 
collateral idea of shall or must, hence ci rifieXXov Traaxsiv, what I should suffer. The 
difference between the pres. tense or the aor. of the infin. employed with nkXXuv 
lies again in the duration or momentary performance of the action ; but the fut. of 
the infin. is also commonly used by a kind of pleonasm ; Demosth. Mid. 21. and he 
did all this in the presence of people, o't avrbv iTraiv'sasaQai fiera ravra tjixeXXov, 
(Lat. ' qui eum erant laudaturi,') where we should say more precisely, of whom he 
could foresee that they would praise him. 

Obs. 12. The perf. has also a conj. and opt., and the future has an optative, which 
are really used whenever that kind of uncertainty or contingency which is peculiar 
to these moods (see § 139.) agrees with the time of these tenses. For instance, 
Et0£ 6 v'lbg vsviicrjKoi, — Oh that my son had conquered! si rivsg siffeXtjXvOoisv, if (by 
chance) some had entered, elTrsv on ij'^oi r)fxspg. rphy, he said that he should come the 
third day. But the moods of the pres. and of the aor. assisted by the context being 
sufficient in most of these instances, and the indie, being also very frequently era- 
ployed in sermone obliquo, (compare § 139. Obs. 3.) the former are used only for the 
sake of distinctness, and therefore require no particular elucidation here. And even 
then the periphrastic form, ex. gr. 7re^iXr]Kojg w and i'lrjv is generally preferred to 
the conj. and ojot. perf. The imper. perf. occurs in its principal 2 pers. chiefly in such 
verbs only, of which \\\%perf. has the signif. of the joreJS., as KSKpax9i, ksxv^^t^) (see 
the Anom. xao-Kw,) fjLsuvtjao : the 3 pers. especially of the perf. pass, marks a con- 
clusive resolution, let it-then be done ! and frequently supplies an energetic expression, 
ex.gr. Nwv ^e tovto TSToXjxricrOu) dntiv, be it dared, Aristoph. Vesp. 1129. 'kitth- 
pdaOii), be it attempted, i. e. attempt it, 

§ 138. — Fuiurum 3. 

1. The fut. 3. in both form and signif. is properly composed 
of the perf. and fut. ; it transfers into futurity what is com- 

Bb2 



372 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Tpletely past and accomplished; Plato Rep. 6. 'H TroXireia reXeMQ 
ic£Koa-/u/j(T£ra<5 lav 6 toiovtoq avrrjv iiricTKOTry (pvXa^, the state will 
have been perfectly arranged (not be arranged, Lat. adornata 
erit civitas, not adornabitur) lohen it is superintended by such 
a governor. Aristoph. Nub. 1436. iddTr]v £/ioi K^KXavaaTai, (com- 
pare § 134, 4.) then shall I have wept in vain. The peif. fre- 
quently denotes a situation which is still continuing, ex. gr. ly- 
yiypafxfim does not mean simply /A«ve been inscribed, but also 
/ am inscribed, am on the list. The case is the same with this 
flit., Aristoph. Eq. 1371. Ov^uq Kara (nrovdag fjitTeyjpacprjijeTai, 
'AAX' wo-ttejo ^v to Trpwrov, lyytypd^perai, none shall for any con- 
sideration be transferred from one list- to another, but every one 
shall continue inscribed as he was at first. 

2. Hence this is the proper fut. of such perf. as obtain a 
particular signif., which may be conceived as that of a pres. ; 
MXuTTTai, it is a remnant, XeAft^eraf, it will be a remnant, (Xei(j)' 
Or)(TSTai, it ivill be left behind,) KiKTrjjuai, I possess, jUBfivrifiai, I 
remember, K^KTrjcrofjiai, juejuvrjCTOjuai. 

3. The Attic writers, moreover, employ the fut. 3. in the 
pass, voice of several verbs as a simple fut. pass. Independ- 
ently of the verbs Sew and iriirpdaKw, (see the Anom.) this is 
chiefly the case with Treiravo-ojuLaL, K^Ko-ipo/uiat, which ought never 
to be taken by a forced interpretation for the original fut. 3. 
nor ought this to be done with other verbs in which this fut. 
(with Attic writers) sometimes has the usual signif. of the fut, 
pass., as jSfjSXTjffOfta/, XeXi^ofim and others, which we leave to 

individual notice. 

Obs. This fut. 3. has, however, a particular emphasis in some verbs, and denotes 
either — 1.) it shall be, I will have It so, Soph. Aj. 1141. Menelaus' speech, "Ev aoi 
<ppd<T(o, TovS' karlv ovx^ QairHov — is answered, 2{) c' avraKovasi tovtov wg TtOd- 
tperai, where the usual Tacptjaerai would -not have heen so energetic by far ; or 2.) 
hastening, (ppci^s, Kai TTtirpaiiTai, (Aristoph. Plut. 1026. cf. 200.) properly, speak, 
and it shall be done, i, e. it shall he done instantly. And it is apparently from such 
passages that the ancient denomination of i\\\s fat., paulo-post-faturum, was derived. 



§ 1^9.— Moods. 

1. The indicat., as the mood conveying the idea of certainty, 
and the imperat., as that of command, agree in their essential 
parts with the usage of other languages. Conditional, hypo- 
thetical, or dependent propositions may be expressed in Greek 
in two ways, either by the conj, or the optat., whilst other Ian- 



SYNTAX. 373 

guages, for instance the Latin, have but the conj. The conj. 
mood in Greek is used in propositions containing an assertion 
on which experience or the future has to decide, in how far 
this assertion wdll hold good or not; the optat. however is used 
whenever any assertion is to be conceived as merely hypotJieti- 
cal or conditional, without any reference as to whether the fu- 
ture or experience may confirm it or not. 

Ohs. 1. Though the nature of the conj. and optat. points to their being merely 
employed in dependent propositions, still there are certain instances in which they 
occur even in simple or pmicipcd propos. We shall treat first of the latter : — 

I. — The Conj. in Simple Propositions. 

1.) as the expression of doubt and reflection [cojij. dubitativus or deliberativus). 
The conj. occurs in this instance scarcely otherwise than in the first person. 
Such propositions ought to be conceived as dependent ones, since the verbs 
jSovXiif 6e\eig, ovk olda are either added or to be understood, ex. gr. ttoOev 
(3ovXiL dp^ii)fxai ; tchere shall I begin? j3ovXsi ovv (TKOTroJfxev ; Anacr. tl aoi 
OsXtig TToiricTo) ; (conj. aor.) or without such verbs : tiTToj ovv aoiTO airiov; 
shall I tell you the reason? Plat, Thecet. 17. — vvv clkovctu) avOig; Luc. Dial. 
M. 30, 1. — tI TTOiw ; Tzr] /3a); ttoT rpaTroJixai ; Eurip. Ion. 758. £i7ra»ju£v r) 
(Tiyatfiev, i) Ti dpcKTOfiev ; This conj. may be also sometimes found in the 
second and third person, ex. gr. ttoi tiq eXQjj ; Dera. 3Iid. 10. 6 tolovtos 
TTorepa [lij d(p diKtjv, 

2.) as the expression of gentle command or of a wish, {co7ij. adhortativus,) 
merely in the first person, principally of the plur., ex. gr. liDj-iev, let us go, 

IdnJllSV, aVjJLJSovXtVbJfXEV, &c. 

3.) instead of the imperat. in the second and third person, but only in com- 
mands negatively expressed, with fii) and ov juj) ; in \^iich case the conj. 
aor. is used, (see § 148, 3.) ex. gr. ^y) rpscryg ; Soph. Ant. 84. aXX' ovv 
Trpojxrjvvaijg ye rovro firjdsvi. El. 1035. dXV ovttot k^ Ifiovyt jxr) [xdOyg 
Tode. 

4.) In Epic writers we frequently meet with the conj. of the aor. for the real 
fut., and the origin of this usage may be explained by the signification of 
the /Mi. in the ancient language not having been so distinctly marked as 
it was in later times ; ex. gr. ov yap tto) roiovg 'idov dvspag ovSk 'idcofiat, 
nor may I {probably^ see any more, II. a. 262. Kai Trore rig tlTrym, K- 459. 
This conj. occurs even in the midst of the most decided futureSj ex. gr. Od. 
jj.. 383, dvaofiai dg 'Atdao Kal Iv vsKveaai <paiiv(t). 

II, — The Optat. in Simple Propositions. 

1. as the expression of a wish : Plat. Phcedr. extr. ""Q 9sol So'ltjts jjioi KaX(^ ytvi- 
aQai ravSoOev rrXovcnov Sk vofxiil^oiixi tov Go<pov, &c. This optat. serves 
likewise for softening down the harshness of command, and is thus used 
for the imperat.: Hom. Od. ^. 407. rdxK^Td fxoi tvdov halpoi thv ; it is 
also used for expressing the will and design, usually in the first person, and 
similar to the conj., but with this distinction, that the optat. does not, like 
the conj., compel to immediate action. Od. tt. 383. aXKa (p9ia>ij,sv eXovTtg 
— (Siorov d' avToi Kai Krrjfjiar' exioixev, daaadfiivoi — oiKla 6' airs Ktivov 
fxrjrspi doXfisv t^fiv, t)^' oarig OTrvlot, 

2,) with dv, see 3, 4. 



374 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 2. Tlie usage of the Epics respecting the moods in simple propos. coincides 
with that of the Attic writers. The only peculiarity of the Epics is that they use 
the ^ar^. av and ks by far more fi'equently. (See below 3.) 

2. The conj. and optat. are principally and properly em- 
ployed in dependent sentences. The remark that the C07ij, 
mostly accompanies the principal, the optat. the historical 
tenses, is based on the nature of these moods; see Text 1. 
The Greek says, for instance, ovk ol^a ottol TpaTrLOjULai, {non 
habeo, quo me vertam,) because I suppose that the future 
will decide whither I am to turn. Hence the conj, follows 
after a perfect^ (the latter implying by its nature a present 
time,) and after a future ; and even after an aorist when it 
stands for the joe//., according to § 137, 3. But in a narration 
the mind is carried back to the past, and thus identifying itself 
with the person which acts or speaks, abstracts completely from 
any future time which is to decide or has already decided on 
what has been stated; ew. gr. ovk ydeiv ottol rpa7roifir]v {non 
habebam, quo me verier em). 

3. The use of the moods is intimately connected with that 
of the particle av; whereby this part of the syntax becomes 
so very complicated and difficult. The nature of the part, av 
consists in its modifying the meaning of apropos, construed 
with the conj. or optat., and hence arose a second usage of this 
part., that of being annexed to other words. It points out 
that the import of a sentence is to be considered as depending 
upon a certain condition, without however explicitly mentioning 
it, (at least in most cases,) but leaving it to be inferred. The 
part, av therefore implies in fact always a whole sentence con- 
taining a condition. — We shall now treat of the particular cases 
in which it occurs : — 

1.) av with the indicat. of the present Siud per/, is a combination which is im- 
possible, since the certainty and positive nature of any assertion would 
become uncertain by its being made dependent upon a condition. When 
we therefore meet with dv in a propos. construed with the pres. or perf.^ 
the part, av does not belong to the indicat. but to another word in the sen- 
tence; ex. gr. in olfiai dv, ovk dv old' on — , the part, dv belongs to the de- 
pendent propos. (see for more examples in Obs, 4. below). But it may be 
connected with the indicat. of the fat. by way of softening down the deci- 
sive character of any assertion made with regard to future things, similarly 
to the conj. aor. instead of the/w^. ; see Obs. 1. I. 4.,ex.gr. Od. y. 80. 
fi'psai, oTTTToOev iliikv' syw dk ks toi /caraM^w. II. a. 174. Trap' ifioiye Kal 
aXXot, 01 KS [xe rifXTjaovcn. 

2.) dv with the indicat. of the historical tenses signifies — 

a.) the rep>etition of an action, in so far as this same repetition is to be 



i 



SYNTAX. 375 

conceived as dependent upon certain conditions, but the existence of 
which is merely hinted at by the addition of dv ; for instance, tTroin 
av, he used to do, viz. as often as cix'cumstances would admit of it. 
This usage is very common with all writers, 
b.) In the same manner is av used with the historical tenses, whenever 
the sense is to be conveyed that any condition under which an action 
may or might take place, may or might possibly not be fulfilled. 
The hnperf. is then employed with av, respecting an action the im- 
possibility of which exists in the present time ; if in the past, the 
plusq. or the aor. with av, ex.gr. Ittolovv civ tovto, I should do so (the 
idea in the mind of the speaker is dW ov ttoTu)) ; and with a ne- 
gation : oiiK av i7roir]<7a, ovk dv kTreTroirjKeiv, I should not have done 
so (mentally supplied : dW eTroirjcra). 
Obs. 3. Omitted in gj^ with verbs denoting that something ought to be done, or 
might be permitted, as xP'7'^j ^^^h 7rpo(T^K£v, t^fjv, Ivriv, ex. gr. Soph. EL 1505. 
XP^v ^' tvQvQ flvat TTjvSe rolg Trdaiv diicTjv, 
oarig irspa Trpdacruv ye riov vojxwv 6L\ei, 
KTeivsiv' TO yap Travovpyov ovk dv rjv ttoXv. 
Here the reason of the omission is, that the idea in the mind of the speaker is not 
dW ov xp^ > for the necessity of the fact is not here denied, but the fact itself. 
To the latter words, however, the reply is, dW tan ttoXv. — 'E^rjv yap divotptv- 
yeiv, I might have fled (mentally supplied, dXX' ovi: dirs^vyov). But as soon as 
one may reply, dWd del, t^eari or ov Sal, the part, dv is again employed. It is for 
the same reason that dv is usually omitted with the verbs axptXov, s/itXXov, 'i<pT]v, 
il3ov\6fiT]v. — See for another instance below E. 3. 

3.) The conj. describing an object as existing only under certain conditions 
which are to take place either in the present or future time, involves in 
fact always the joari. dv. We therefore may say that its being added to 
a conj. is superfluous. Hence no simple propos. are ever construed with 
dv and the conj., at least not in good Attic prose. But if we meet with 
the C07ij. with dv in dependent propos. or such as begin with a conjunction 
or a, pronoun, the j^art. dv is, according to the usage of speech, to be sepa- 
rated from the conj. mood, and is intimately to be connected with the con- 
junction or the jyronoun, ex. gr. lav, oTcoTav, (for d dv, qttot' dv, oq dv,) &c. 
4.) The optat. construed with dv serves for expressing a mere subjective opi- 
nion, limited by certain conditions, and is therefore employed to convey a 
doubtful assertion or the idea of a bare possibility, and which is rendered 
m English by may, might, &c. ; ex. gr. laojg dv ovv riveg tTriTifirjcreiav 
rolg slprjixsvoig, some p)erhaps might find fault tcith what I said ; dXX' ovv, 
eiTToi Tig dv, but some one might say — ; tjSkujg dv Qtaaaifxriv Taura' — to 
awixaToeidtg ioTiv ov Tig dv ci-ipaiTO, the corporeal is what can he touched. 
This is the manner of speaking, owing to that modesty or moderation so 
peculiar to the Attic writei-s, which is used for the most positive assertions 
and predictions, or for avoiding the more positive character of the future 
tense ; ex. gr. ov yap dv rdy£ i'}dr] yeyevrj^sva tij vvvi (Sotjdi'ia KOjXixrai 
dvvr]6tir]fi6v' — oiiK dv (pvyoig, you icill not escape ; ykvoiTo S' dv Tvdv ev 
T(f [xaKoo^ X9ov(p. , Lastly, this ojjtat. with dv is likewise employed for 
softening down the harshness of command ; hence Xsyoig dv for Xsys- — 
Xfdpolg dv e'i(j(i). Soph. 

4. When the particles and pronouns compounded with av 
are construed with the conj. of the aor., the latter constitutes 
a presupposed preterite, and consequently if the context points 



370 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

to a time to come, it becomes a future preterite (in Latin 
futurum exactum). 

Examples : Dem. Mid. 10. xP') ^^» orav fjiev ridrjade tovq vojjovgf 
oTToloi Tiveg ftct aKOTvelv' kireilhiv he dfjade, (pvXamiv koX yj>riaQaL, hut 
when you have given them ; kireiZav uTravra aKovar]TE, Kpuare, when 
you shall have heard all, then judge ; avrr] yj Trapafftcevrj Siafj.elvaL hvvii^ 
(TSTai, eu)Q au TrepLyepiOf^eda tu)v kyBpCjv. — hiatpdepEi o, tl av XajSr].^ 

5. Any conditional, contingent, or uncertain expression which 
is expressed hypothetically, may, owing to its construction, be 
rendered in Greek by the infinit. or the participle with the 
addition of av. This advantage of imparting the power of the 
opt. or indicat. with ay to the participle- and infinit. gives to the 
Greek a great superiority over all known languages. The 
infinit. or participle however can never be employed instead of 
the conj. with av, since, according to text 3, 3, the part, av is 
never to be construed with the conj. mood, but is to be con- 
nected with certain conjunctions or pronouns.^ and therefore 
must be omitted whenever the conjunction or pronoun be 
omitted. 

Examples : O'iovtul avajUa^tcacrQai av avfxp.d\ovQ TrpoaXaf^oiTeg, 
they think they might repair their defeat, if they had allies (dvaya- 
yiaaivT ay, el TTpu(xXd(3oi£r, see below, A.) ; 7-dXXa aicoTro), ttoXV dy 
eyjjjv stTrely, whilst I could say a great deal more. Herod. 7, 139. vvy 
CE 'AQ-qvaiovQ ay Tig Kiywy, {who might say,) acorfjpaQ yEviaQai Trig 
'YXXdhog ovK ay kiafidproi. Plat. Crit. 9. oi pa^'iiag dTroKTiyyvvreg /cat 
dyal^noaKOjiEvui y ay, el oioir iiaay, who lightly put to death, and would 
probably restore again to life, if they but could {dre^mcTKoyT ay, see 
3, 2. b.) 

The part, av, if placed after the verbs Bokuv, ohaOat, IXttIZ^iv, 
OVK iari, and similar ones, imparts to the infinit. of the aor. the 
power of the infinit. future. 

Examples: Ovk earty eya dyhpa ay hvyrjdfjyai ttote diravra ravra 
TTpa^ai, it is not to be supposed that any man should ever be able to 
perform all this (^SvyrjOfjyai ttote widiout av means, would have per- 
formed all this) ; eEokei dv ri/juv fjhiiog iravTa hiaTrpd^ai, (on the position 
of aV, see Obs. 4.) it appeared to us that he would gladly perform all 
this. The same applies to the part, of the aor. with ay after such 
verbs as are construed with the participle instead of the infinit. See 
§ 144, 4. a. 

Ohs. 4, As to the position of av, it is to be remarked that it never can begin the 
sentence. But the question after which word in the sentence it is to be placed 
depends in many cases upon the choice of the writer, or upon the intention of I'en- 
dering the uncertainty sensible either a little sooner or a little later, or in some 



SYNTAX. 377 

instances it is added to some word or other without any such reason. Thus it is 
frequently placed directly after the opt. or indicat., but never after the conj., for the 
reason quoted above in 3, 3. The part, av is hkewise frequently annexed to the 
adverbs tIq, irwg, yap, and to ovk, ovSelg, &c. not only in sentences construed with 
the conj., but also in such as are construed with the opt. or indicat. We have 
already mentioned the expressions cZ/xai dv, ovk av olSa, in text 3, 1. Examples 
of this kind are: Plato Phcedo 116. oi/^ai dv, wq tyw Xgyw, -itoigTq, where dv 
belongs to ttoioIq. Tim. p. 26. b. ovk dv old' el dvvai^rjv airavTa iv fxvnuy TvaXiv 
XafSnv, i.e. ei dvvaiix)]v dv, ' ichether I coidd, ' y'\z. if I were asked. 'EdoKSi dv 
ijfilv r'jdeojQ Trdvra dLa—pd^ai, where dv belongs to the infin'it. The position of dv 
in sentences like the following is to be noticed, Demosth. 01. 1, 13. (5.) ri ovv dv 
TiQ si—OL Tavra X'sysig jy/iiv vvv, where dv, though belonging to sXttoi, is connected 
with tL ovv of another sentence. Plat. Phcedo p. 87. a. ti ovv dv (pah] 6 \6yoQ 
tri dwKyTtiQ, instead of rl ovv d-maTtiQ, (pair] dv b X, Demosth. c. Arlstocr. 
680, 26. £fc rovTOv rov ■>p7](piafiaT0Q KvpooOsvrog dv, a fxij Si yfJ.dg, rjS'iKrjvTO ol 
[SacriXsig, i. e. ei to ^. eKvpujOr], ol (3aaiXelg ■)]6iK7]vr' dv, {would be tcronged, see 
below,) ei ju?) Sl i]ndg (i.e. if it were not for tis, see § 150). 

Obs. 5. The paiiicle dv, like a negation, is often repeated twice or three 
times without imparting any additional strength to the sense. This is the case 
principally in such propositiojis as those in which dv is combined with one of the 
words quoted in Obs. 4., and where dv is repeated with the mood, (viz. either with 
the indicat. or opt.) ex. gr. irwg dv ttot dcpiicoiixrjv dv — ovk dv (pOdvoig dv ; or 
when sentences are intercalated: Soph. EL 333. locrr' dv, ei cOsvog Xa/3ot/it, 
St]Xw(toih' dv ol avroXg (ppovoJ. See Heind. ad PL Plicedr. 138. Herm. Opusc. IV. 
p. 188. 

6. The dependent propos. in which the moods are principally 
employed, are of a manifold nature. The rules respecting the 
moods in these propos. are not to be separated from those in 
simple propos. J and the conj. and opt. stand therefore in de- 
pendent propos, only when their usage agrees with the general 
rules noted above. Hence it is a mistake to consider the moods 
as dependent upon the preceding particles ; on the contrary, 
the particle is frequently modified by the following mood. We 
think it useful to take a short review of the different kinds of 
dependent propos., in order to follow up the general definition 
in the various instances in which the moods are applied, and 
to be thus enabled to see which constructions oxe predominating 
in dependent sentences, and the reason why they are made use 
of. We shall treat, 1.) of conditional propos., 2.) of relative 
propos., 3.) o^ propos. beginning with the particles of time, 
4.) of j9ro/?o5. containing a reason or cause, 5.) o^ propos. ex- 
pressing any purpose or aim, 6.) of propos. expressing conclu- 
sions, 7.) of transitive propos. with otl, wc? that, 8.) of direct 
and indirect interrogative propos. 

§ 139. A. — Conditional Propositions, 

In every conditional propos. the condition is considered 
either as possible or as impossible. The possible case is either 



o7b A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

expressed as quite certain and positive, or as the partial and 
subjective meaning of the speaker, or as dependent upon a 
future time and experience. This gives rise to the following 
cases : — 

1. Possibility, without any mention of uncertainty, d with 
the indie. : u ll5p6vTr]<Te, koI ri(7Tpa\p£v, if it has thundered, it has 
also lightened ; a tl f'x^^c? ^og, if thou hast any thing, give it. 

Obs. 1. The future time is in itself always uncertain, or at least dependent upon 
certain conditions : hence the Greek gives in such cases the preference to the conj. 
mood. But tl with the fut. indie, is used as often as any condition in being ful- 
filled is either feared or hoped for by the speaker ; since the mind of the latter, 
being affected by the probable result, keeps no more within the boundaries of mere 
reflection, but anticipates at once the event, as one Avhich has been already real- 
ised : ex. gr. Xen. Anab. 4, 7? 3. Ty yap argari^ ovk tan to. tTTirrjdtia, ti ju/) 
\r]\p6[xt6a TO x(ji)p'iov. Plat. Plicedo p. 107. c. 6 Kivdwog So^eitv av dtivbg tlvai, 
ti TiQ avTTjg {TTJg -ipvx^lQ) afJieXrjtni. Eurip. Hel. 1010. ahKoir]jxtv av, si fiq 
cnrohuxTuj. See in particular the example in 5. below, in Eurip. {Or. 559.) and 
some others quoted by Kriiger on the passage in Xen. quoted above. 

2. The condition is of such a nature as to be decided on by 
experience (or future time). That the conj. mood must be 
used in such cases follows from its general definition in § 139, 1, 
and that av is then joined to the particle, (cav, riv, av,.Epic 
€1 Kg, oTTorav, &c.) follows from 3, 3., ex. gr. lav tl 'ixojfxev, 
^wcrofxev, if we should have any thing, we will give it to you, lav 
Tig Tiva Twv vTraQy6vTix)v v6fxu)v juri KaXujg '^X^'^ r]yriTai,ypa(pladw, 

Obs. 2. It is, however, not against the Grecian usage of speech to omit some- 
times the part, dv ; the propos. is then merely construed with tl and the conj., and 
the case is essentially the same with the preceding one, yet with this exception, 
that the condition is to be considered as less dependent upon casual events, and as 
one which in future time is certainly going to be realised. This construction is 
also to be met with in Attic writers : ex. gr. Soph. (Ed. R. 873. vjSpig, tl ttoWuiv 
vTTspTtXrjaOy, a condition, the fulfilling of which is likely to result from the nature 
of the v(3pig itself ; ibid. 198. TsXti yap tl n vv^ cccpy, tovt' stt' r/fiap 'ipx^rai. 
Not so certain is this passage with the Epics : II. a. 340. a. 257. (see for more 
examples in Herm. Opusc. IV. p. 97. s.) 

3. The condition is merely a supposition of a case, (a mere 
hypothesis,) which may in itself he possible, but which is to be 
considered in the mean time as entirely independent from the 
idea as to whether it will be realised in future or not : d with 
the opt. In the conclusion, (see below, 5.) the opt. with aj^ is 
usually employed, ex. gr. el tiq ravra irpaTTOL, juiya fx av o^^eX//- 
GUE, if any one should do this, he would render me a great ser- 
vice ; u Tig Tama KaO' avTu l^^Taaeiev, evpot av, if any one should 
examine this, he would find. 

Obs. 3. On the very rare and doubtful instances in good Attic prose where tdv is 



I 



SYNTAX. 379 

combined with tlie opt. on account of a preceding historical tense, see the general 
remark in Ohs. 2. (after H.) The connecting of kav (as coming fi'om ei dv) with 
the ojJt. would make one condition dependent upon another ; or with other words, 
Avould point out the improbability of what has been stated in the preceding condi- 
tional propos. ; as is the case, for instance, in Xeu. Hipparch. 7,4. rjv Sh r) fxev 
TToXig TpSTT iirat £7ri to. vavTiicd — rovg de iTnTsag d^i u) a e is rd Iktoq roii reixovQ 
haGo)Z,Hv, where however another reading has d^uoay. But ti dv, separated with 
the opt., occurs more frequently ; in these instances dv is to be referred to the 
opt., and it then forms the mood which is noted in § 139, 3, 4, for instance in Xen. 
Cyrop. 3, 3, 55, and in indirect questions in section H. 

4. Impossibility or unbelief, or, in general^ where a case is 
imagined, of which it is presupposed that it does not exist. 
In this case the imperf. ivithout av is usually employed for the 
present time, and the conclusion in the second part of thejoro- 
pos. is expressed by the imperf. ivith av, (compare § 139, 3. 
2. b.) ex. gr. tl n elx^'^j l^idov av, if he had any thing, he ivould 
give it. Here the idea is necessarily in the mind of the 
speaker, but he has nothing. When the case refers to the 
time past, d with the indie, of the aor. is used, and in the 
conclusion the aor. with av : ex. gr. el tl eax^v, idwKev avi if he 
had had a?iy thing, he would have given it. But the two sen- 
tences may refer to dissimilar times, ex. gr. u l7reh9r]v, ovk av 
rjppwGTovv, had I obeyed, {complied with advice,) I should not now 
he ill. — It follows of course that a proposition, w^hich, if not 
hypothetical, would be expressed in the perfect, is in this case 
rendered by the plusqp., and the present by the imperf. ; ex. gr. 
Demosth. 01. 3. p. 32. u yao avrapKri to, i//r](^i(7^ara 7]v, ovk av 
^LXLTTirog TOCTOvrov vjdoLKeL ■)^p6vov. 

Ohs. 4. When the conclusion refers to the 2^cist, but is at the same time to convey 
the idea of duration, it is rendered by the imperf. with dv, ex. gr. Herod. 7, 139. /cot 
ov-b) dv iTT d[x<p6rEpa y) EXXdg iyivero vtto Hepaycri. Demosth. Mid. -p. 523. Reisk. 
TrdvT dv tktytv ovtoq tots. Thuc. 1, 9. ovk dv ovv vrjcrujv l?a» rwv TnpioiKidojv 
ri7reip(iJTr]Q wv licpaTSi, tl fii) ri ical vavriKov dx^v. 

5. The sentence containing the conclusion is not confined to 
any definite construction, because sentences of this class are to 
be considered as independent or simple propositions. The opt. 
with av therefore in independent propos. may just as well follow 
after d with the indie, as after lav with the conj. ; and on the 
other hand, the conclusion, expressed by the indie, with or 
without av, may equally well follow after d with the opt. 

Examples : Plat. Apol.]). 25. b. ttoXXi) av nc evdaipovla e'lr} TreplrovQ 
viovc, el e'lQ fxlv pLuvog avrovg lLa(pBeip(.i, oi c clWoi u)(peXovai}\ Com- 
pare Hipp. Min. p. 364. a. — Enrip. Or. 559, el yap yvruli^es eg rob' 



380 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

i]t,ovair dpaaovQ di^pag (l)oyeveiy, KctTacpvycig TroLOufiEiat eg riicva, — Trop' 
ovlev avTcug t) v av oWvvai TToaeig. — ibid. 1130. el jiev yap elg yvi'ait^a 
aiocbpovEaripav I'lipog jdeds'ifjiep, SvcrKXeyg av ?}»' (pdovog. — Plat. Prot. p. 
334. b. olor Kal a icoTrpog, — el S' idiXoig em rovg wTopOovg Kat rovg veovg 
^Xunac eTnlDuXXew, Trctira uTroXXvaiv. — Xen. Anah. 5, 1,9. ear ovv 
Kara fxepog (pvXdrrioiJiev teal aKOTrwjiev, i)ttov ^vvaivr dv rjf^dg drjp^v ol 
TToXefiwi ; (the latter example is taken from a speech most instructive 
respecting conditional sentences.) The fourth case alone (see text 4.) 
is of that kind where the first part of the proposition and its conclusion 
stand in a reciprocal relation to each other ; the mere indie, there- 
fore (without a I') stands usually only in such cases as we noticed in 
§ 139. Obs. 3. 

B. — Propositions beginning with pronouns relative. 

1. The adverbial pronouns, or the relative adv. o^ place, {ov, 
oTTov, &c.) of time, [riviKa, &c.) of manner, [wg, oirwg, &c.) are of 
course to be reckoned among the pronouns relative. These 
relative propositions (which must be well distinguished from 
indirect interrogative propos. in section H.) are either con- 
strued like independent propos., ov, when considered as de- 
pendent ones, the same constructions as are already enume- 
rated in conditional propos. are to be attended to. 

2. We therefore only observe that 1.) propositions with the 
indie, either refer in a specified manner to a preceding pron. 
demonstrative, whether it be expressed or merely understood, 
or they are of a more general nature, (beginning with ogtiq, 
oGTLGovv,) in w^hich case they correspond w ith the Latin propos. 
construed with quicunque ; 2.) that in propos. with the conj., 
av is always joined to the pron. relative, and then the sentence 
is ahvays of a general character ; 3.) that in propos. with the 
opt.., av is either omitted, in w^hich case they are also of a gene- 
ral character, or they are intercalated sentences belonging to 
an oblique speech, (see Obs. 4.) or av is added, and then it 
forms that mood which we have mentioned above, (or it may 
have originated in the change of the conj. into that of the opt., 
see Obs. 4.) 4.) that the historical tenses in the indie, with av 
are used wherever they would be employed in a simple propos. 
All these diflferent cases will be easily understood by the fol- 
lowing examples : — 

Examples : At'^w a rjicovaa. — Xen. Anah. 6, 5, 6. edaTrrov, oiroanvg 
eTreXd jj jjarev f] arpaTid ; id. Cyr. 3, 2, 26. ^wcw, oaoy rig Sijirore 
ecojKe. — Eurip. Iph. T. 39. duoj yaf), bg ay KariXdr] rrjvh yfjv ''EXXrjv 



SYNTAX. 381 

arr/p. — Troad. 1031. vo/Jtov de tov^e rnlg ciWaiffi Beg yvi'ai^l, dvyafceiy, 
i]TLQ ap irpo^w TToaw. — Xen. Anah. 2, 5, 32, ol 'nnre'iQ, ^lu rov tteEIov 
eXavioj'TEc, (OTU'i e yrvy^avo le v "EWrjvt, Tratrag EKretvov, (compare 
below C. Obs. 2.) — Hell. 2, 1. 32. AvaarSpoc, (^iXoKXia epioT)](TaQ, og 
Tovg ^Ai'Eptovg KaraKp-qfxvifTEiE, (a fictitious case,) -/ e'ly] aL,iog Tradslyj 
dTrE(7(j)aL,£i', (sc. Tov <&.) — Cyr. 2, 1, 4. (jovXtvaofXESa, o-rrwg av apiara 
dyijjvi^olixEBa, how we micjht fight in the most advantageous manner. 
— Eur. Hel. 815. /it" eoriv e\7ric, ?/ fjLovr] (t tt) 6 e~i fi e v av, (see for more 
examples in Matthias's Gram. § 528.) — Xen. Anah. 7, 6, 26. 'Hpv fe 
oTrXiraoj^ fXEP ?/r, w 'laojg av EhwafXEda oLtov XanftdvEiv ovliv ri 
d(f)9o)0}'. 

Obs. 1. The usage of adding av to the particles relative is, as far as Attic prose is 
concerned, beyond doubt ; but the Epics use far more frequently the mere conj,, 
ex.. gr. II. a. 229. ?} ttoXv XCo'iov Ian — ^wp' ciTroaipttaOai ocmg as9tv dvriov eliry. 
The tragic writers sometimes imitate this mode of construction, (see A. Obs. 2.) ex.gr. 
Soph. Track. 251. tov Xoyov d' ov xpj} (p96vov,yvvi], Trpoaiivai, Zsvc orov TrpoKrwp 
^avy ; yet not without sufficient reason, since the question is here of a definite 
object. 

Obs. 2. We meet very frequently with the future indie, where in Latin the conj. 
must be used, in relative propos., which express an aim or purpose, or wherein the 
meaning is, that something ought or may be done ; ex. gr. Xen. Hell. 2, 3, 2. 
tdo^e T(^ cr]fi(p TpiaKovra dvdpag fXkcrOai, oi rovg Trarpiovg vojxovg ^vyypa.xl'ovcn, 
KaO' ovg TToXiTivaovai. — Anab. 7, 6, 24. dyopq, Se exP^^^^ airdvia exovreg, otojv 
ojvrjaeaOe. — In the same way we meet after negative sentences with the indie, 
where in Latin the conj. must be used. Hell. 6. 1, 4, (5.) Trap' tjuoi ovhlg 
fiia9o(popel, cxTTig firj iKavog k crriv Icra ttovhv tjJLoi, 

Obs. 3. In certain modes of speech, the imperat. may be also used after particles 
relative ; ex. gr. oToO' o Spdaov ; oTaO' wg Troiijaov in tragic wi'itei's ; also in the 
third pers.: olaOa vvv il jxol yevsaOio. Eurip. 

Obs. 4. For the use of the mere conj. and other moods in indirect questions see 
below H. 2 ; for the opt. with av after historical tenses in the principal propos., and 
for the opt. and indie, in intercalated sentences, in the middle of an oblique speech, 
see the general remark (after H.) in Obs. 2. and 3.; for the inf. after particles relat. 
see § 141. 06s. j for the fiit. with ke after particles relat. in Epic writers, see § 139, 
3,1. 

C. — Pt^opositions beginning with the particles of time, 
1. Particles of this kind are : wg. ore, ottote, lir^l, ewg, iZy ov, 
TTpiv., ears ; the Epic rifiog, 6(ppa, ivre, and others. Their con- 
struction agrees essentially with that of relative propositions, 
these particles partaking for the most part of a relative nature. 
We shall therefore Hmit our observations to some particular in- 
stances, and quote examples for common use. The construc- 
tion with the conj. adds again av to the particles of time, ivith 
the only exception oi wq, which in this combination signifies either 
as, when, or it tends to express an aim or purpose. See below. 
Examples : Ol TroXifnoi, ug eIcov rove Mi'j^ovg, Ecrrrjauy. — Xen. Anab. 



382 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

3, 1, 9. elire (ie on, eirei^dp Ta^Kjra rj arparaia Xy^rj, evdvg cnroTriji^l^ei 
avror. — ibid. 3, 5, 18. Trapr/yyetXav, eireiSrj ^ELTrpijrreiai' (TvyeaKevaff/xirovg 
TTCiyrag ciyaTraveadaif kcu eireadai ijytK au Tig TrapayyeiXr]. — Plat. Phced. 
p. 101. d. eI Be Tig avTfjg rfjg vwoQeGeiog 'i'^oiro, yaipiiv l<Jr]g av Kal ovk 
aiTOK'pivaio, eu)g ay rd cnr' sKeivrjQ opfxrjdivTa ani-^paio, 

Ohs. 1. That Homer omits very frequently av in joropos. construed with the conj., 
corresponds with the observation we have made with regard to the particles rela- 
tive and the particles expressing a condition ; ex. gr. aXX ots yrjpdaKitjat ttoXiv Kara 
<pvX' avOpdjircov, Od. o. 408. and in many other passages. For examples in later 
writers and their interpretation see Herm. Op. IV. p. 103. 

Ohs. 2. The opt. is usually employed with the particles, conveying the idea of 
repetition, especially with ottots ; this is likewise the case when there is any men- 
tion of specified facts ; in such instances we meet far more rarely with the indie. 
The part. oTrorav is used with the conj. (but Homer may, according to Obs. 1., use 
the conj. with ottote.) The reason for this combination lies of course in the moods, 
since, for instance, in oTrorf ot TroXfjuwi Itt'lOoivto, cnrexdjpovv, the approach of the 
enemy is here to be conceived as the subjunctive motive of repeated retreat, though 
the retreat itself has been already stated as a fact. But when we read for instance, 
OTTOTav (TTpaTOTreSivoiVTai, rd^pov 7repif3dXXovTi, the proposition expresses the 
customary practice as a fact, excluding every allusion to an opinion upon that point. — 
The construction with oTroTav and the opt., which is very rare, is easily explained 
by the following examples : Xen. Cyrop. 1, 3, 11. tW OTtoTav ijtcoi sttI to dtlTrvov, 
Xeyoifi av, ots Xovrai. Compare besides the general remark, Obs. 2. (after H.) 

06s. 3. "Eojg, Epic cxppa, with the indie, expresses the idea of duration, during which 
something happens, and signifies in this case, so long as, or, when used to express a 
momentary action, till. "Ewg dv with the conj. (egt dv. Epic i'kjoke or Eig ote ice) 
also signifies till, but with this distinction from tiog with the mere opt., that by the 
former a limit is set to the principal action by the introduction of another, whilst 
by the latter the acting subject itself sets a limit to the principal action. Attentive 
reading will furnish the student with a sufficient number of examples. For an 
example with the opt. and av after 'iuig see text 1. 

Obs. 4. The particle irplv or ivplv rj (Epic Trdpog), before, the very opposite to the 
foregoing part., is construed with the accus. with the inf., but admits likewise of the 
construction with a definite mood. It is difficult to point out accurately the differ- 
ence between these two constructions, since Homer, for instance, combines the conj. 
ov opt. and the infinit. in one and the same sentence, without any essential distinc- 
tion ; ex.gr. II. p. 504. Od. /3. 373. Tvapog .alone, as conjunction, is always construed 
with the inf., and Tcplv seems to give the preference to the indie, in the case of dis- 
tinct facts being quoted, which have already taken place : {Od. d. 180. Soph. QHd. 
T. 775-) whilst the inf. and conj, are principally used whenever there is any allusion 
to future events. For an example with the op>t. (where the inf. might have been 
used equally well,) see II. (p. 580. and for the op*, with av see Xen. Hell. 2, 3, 48. 

D. — Propositions compressing any cause or reason. 
1. Besides some particles of time, as Itth, liru^r], which may 
likewise convey the idea of reason or cause, there are the conj, 
on, dioTi, ovvEKa, which belong to this section. They are con- 
strued, either with the indie, when any reason or cause is to be 
represented as a fact ; or with the opt. when the former is to 



SYNTAX. 383 

be stated as merely existing in the mind of the speaker. We 
therefore meet with the latter mood for the most part only in a 
narration. 

2. The cojij. cannot be construed with these particles ; for 
every sentence containing the reason (even w^hen it refers to 
the future) of the action expressed in the principal proposition^ 
stands to the latter in a relation on which experience and time 
have already completely decided. For when I say^ for instance : 
''I ivrite now, because he ivill soon be liere^^ it is just the same 
as if I said : " because I know he luill soon be hereP 

3. The o'pt. with av, and the historical tenses with av^ are but 
modifications of sentences expressed by the indict and are 
therefore sufficiently explained by what we said in § ] 39, 3. 

Examples will be furnished by attentive reading. For an 
example of the indic. with av see IL o. 228 ; of the oj)f. with civ 
see Aristoph. Plut. 120. 

E. — Propositions expressing any aim or purpose. 

1. The conjunctions denoting purpose or design are wg, Iva, 
(Epic 6(j)paf) and ^^77, to which we may also reckon onwg, when 
it is to be rendered by that ; this is the case when it stands after 
certain verbs which signify to exhort, to be afraid of, to endea- 
vour, to be cautious, ex. gr. TrapaKaXelv, (l>v\aTT£(j6ai, bpav, liri- 
fiiX^Gdai, fxiXa juoi, irparreiv, &c. Their usual construction is 
with the conj., even after historical tenses, whenever any pur- 
pose is not distinctly to be represented as the intention of the 
subject. Nothing, however, is more usual than that the conj. 
is alternately employed with the indic. fut.; the same as was 
the case with the part, i^elative, when they imply any aim or 
purpose, (see B. Obs. 2.) ex. gr. Thuc. 2, 3. ^weXiyovro — oirwg 
fii) dia tCjv o'^Cjv (pavEpol waiv lovTEg, &c. — 3, 4. tTrpaaGOv, 
uTTijog rig (doi^Osia ij^ct. — 1, 56, ItwpacrcTev OTTiog iroXefiog jlvr^rai. 
1, 65. E,vvi:(5ovXEV£ Tolg ciWoig iKTrXsvaai, oirdjg 6 aXrog avricrxy' 
Xen. Cyrop. 4, 1, 18. opa^ fiy) ttoXXwv Ijcao-rti) r\fiCov koi 6(p9aXfiCjv 
KoX \Eipiov ^erjcrei. 

Obs. 1. The elliptical constructiou of orriijg is here to be noticed, since the verb, 
which denotes exhortation, is to be supplied, and the sentence with ottojq stands 
thus in the place of a strengthened mjyerat. In this case, too, the part, oirwg is 
either construed with the fut. indic, or with the mere conj.: ex. gr.'X.en. Anah. 
1, 7} 3. OTVijjQ tcrecxGs dvdpeg li^ioi rriQ IXsvOsuiag, shoio yourselves truly men, &e. 
^sch. Prom. 68. oTrojg firj aavrov o'lKTulg ttots. Xen. Cyrop. 4, 1, 16. owiog fxiij 
avayKdao)Hiv avTOvg, dyaOovg yevkaOai '. 

' In consequence of remarks, which were however of too narrow a compass, 



381 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

2. With regard to the use of ottwcj tog, and hm, it is further 
to be remarked, that ottwq and 6)g, in the construction with the 
conj., frequently take av, whilst tva in the signification of in 
order to (German damit) stands without av; hence iv' av can 
only mean ubicunque. Again, ottwc and u)q, as particles de- 
noting purpose or design, can only be construed with the indie, 
fat., w^hilst "iva with the fut. only signifies where. For examples 
see Herm. Op. IV. p. 121. 

3. All these conjunctions may of course, when coming after 
historical tenses, be likewise construed with the opt., ex. gr, 
Xen. Laced. 2, 2. eowkev ahn^ iiaGriyo^opovg, owit)g rifxwQoir] 
(roue TroLi^aQ), u ^loi. Plat. Rep. 3.- p. 393. E. awiivai St 
t/cAeue (roy Xpvariv) kol jurj IpeOiZ^iv, iva o-wc o'tKa^E tXOot, or 
after another opt., see Xen. C?/r. i, 4, 25. 

06s. 2. We have seen in text 1. tha,t propos. expressing design and purpose may 
he construed with the conj. after historical tenses ; in the same way it is to be ex- 
plained from the nature of the opt. when ottvjq or 'Iva are construed with the opt. 
nitev principal tenses; ex.gr. Xen. ^?2«6. 1, 6, 9. (TVfx(3ov\tv(t) tov avdpa tovtov 
eKTToSihv TToulaOai ojg rdxicrra, wg firjKSTi Skoi tovtov ^vXaTTeoOai, dXXa cr')(^o\rj 
th] j'lfuv. 

Obs. 3. When av is annexed to oTrwg or mq with the opt., the same mood is then 
formed, which we noticed in § 139, 3, 4. Thus, for instance, <p'iX(ov (piTo dtiaOai 
ojQ (TvvepyovQ txoL,lie thought to be in need of friends, so as to have assistants. {Anab. 
1, 9, 21.) But Cyrop.4, 2,29. KpoTcrog Tag yvvalKug 7rpoa7r£7rs/xx|/aro TT]g vvKTog, 
Mg av paov TropevoivTo, that they might travel in an easier manner; ibid. 1,2, 10. 
avTog Tt Br]pq,, Kai tu)v dXXojv eTTifxeXHTui, oTrojg dv dr}pi^iv, that they might he able 
to hunt. Compare Cyrop. 3, 1, 1. /^. r. 331. Eurip. Iph. T. 1025, &c. and the 
general remark in Obs. 2. (after H.) 

4. Lastly, when the meaning is to be conveyed, that any 
purpose or object w^ould have been gained, if something had 
happened otherwise than it has, the indie, of an historical tense 
with av ought to be employed according to rule; but the 
general usage is to omit av in this case. 

Examples: Soph. CEd. T. 1392. ri fx oh Xaftojv eKTsivag evdvg, ujg 
e^ei^a pljiroTe, 'irdiv ifv yeyw'g ; that I might never have discovered 
whence I came ; and shortly before: 'Iv ijv Tv^Xog re kqI kXviov prjciv. 

Dawes had laid down as a rule that the particles OTZijjg and ov fxrj never are con- 
strued in good Attic writers with the conj. aor. 1. act. and med., but constantly with 
the fut. indie. This rule was found to be frequently confirmed by MSS., and in 
consequence many passages have been altered in modern editions, even withovit the 
authority of any codex, the alteration being but trifling, aijg into (xng, awiiiv into 
aojitv, &c. But it was soon discovered that there would be no end to correcting, 
and that there are passages which are not so easily mended, as for instance, Eur. 
Troad. 445. oitwg yrajKofxtOa. Plat. Rep. p. 609. b. ov yap Toye dyaObv fii]7roTS rt 
dnoXkay. This rule laid down by I)awes, and the subsequent corrections, have 
therefore been abandoned. 



SYNTAX. 385 

— The same in Plat. Meno p. 89. B. tCjv viojy tovc ayadovg dV 
i^vXarroixev — , 'era /j-rjceig avrovg Biicpdeipev, that nobody miff ht have 
spoilt them. The pari, av retains its place only when the conditional 
sentence is expressed. Xen. Anab. 7, 6, 23. Uel to. kvi-^Qjpa tote- 
XafSely, wg jJrjEe, el 1(dov\eto, khvvaro av ravra ic^aTraray. 

F. — Propositions eoppressing any inference or conclusion, 

1. ThQ part. il)(jTe, expressing the idea of an inference or a 
conclusion, is compounded of wc and rl, and means literally 
and thus, in which case it begins the sentence and corresponds 
completely with the Latin itaque, ex. gr. Xen. Anab. 1, 7, 7. 
"0(Tr£, in the signification of so that, may be construed with the 
indie, of all tenses, whenever so that coincides in signification 
with and thus, i. e. when any result is represented as one not 
being intended, but mentioned merely as difact. 

2. "Q,(jT£ (for which wg is also used) is however construed 
with the infin. whenever any result is to be conceived as one 
which has been intended. 

3. That wore may also be construed with the opt. and av, or 
with the historical tenses and av, (for which latter the inf. may 
be likewise used,) instead of the indie, follows of course from 
the general definition given in § 139, 3. 

Examples : Xen. Anab. 2, 2, 17. Oi de k'pavyiiv 7roX\})v e-Koiovv 
KuXovi'TEg aXXiiXovg, ojctts Kal rovg izoXeixiovg ukovslv (an intended 
purpose); wVre ol /jlev iyyvrara rCJv iroXe^LOJv ical e^vyov ek tiov 
cKr}r(i)fiarii)v (a circumstance which follows as a fact from the preceding 
intended result, viz., that the enemy had heard the noise). Sometimes 
the design or purpose is not made equally apparent by the construction 
of the inf.; ex. gr. 3, 3, 14. rolg deolg x"P'^j ''^^ ^^ ^^^ ttoXXtj pi^fir], 
uXXa avv oXiyoig -fiXdov' wore (SXaxpaL jxev firj [xeyaXa, Cr]Xa)aat ^e, 
•l)v Beoiueda. It will, however, be easily remarked, even in this con- 
struction, that the writer wishes to represent the connexion between 
cause and effect as one which has been intended. Memor. 3, 1, 9. 
'AXA.' ovK edi^a^ev' loarE avrovg av rjfjidg ^eol tovq te ayadovg Kal rovg 
KaKovg KpivEiv. Ages. 1, 26. TrdvTEg TroXefJiiKa o-rrXa KavEaKEva'Cov, &aTE 
Trjy TToXiy ovriog f]yri<TOJ av TvoXifjiov epyaffvifpiov elrai. Thuc. 2, 49. 
TO. CE EVTog ovrojg EKaero uxtte ^j7^£ yvfxvol avi^Eadai, ijSiard te av kg 
vcojp \pv)(^puv (T(pdg avTUvg piTTTEiv. 

Obs. 1. The relation between cawsg and €^ec^, never being uncertain nor holding 
out any prospect of future decision, is the reason why ojote can never be construed 
with the conj., even when the proposition expressing conclusion contains the future 
tense ; this is again easily to be understood from the remark we made in section 

C 



386 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

D. 2. ; and still less does this relation admit of the part, av being immediately con- 
nected with wars, since it is the nature of this relation to be conceived as one quite 
independent of any contingent condition. For the same reason the mere ojJt. is 
quite inadmissible, and one instance as in Xen. (Ec. I, 13 : d rig XP^'''^ "''^9 
apyvgicj), (loare Kamov to aw/xa e%oi — TrCig av 'in rb apyvpiov avnp (jj(ps\i[xov 
dr), cannot shake this rule, for the opt. belongs, as it were, to the preceding con- 
ditional propos., expressed by the opt. 

Obs. 2. "H ojare (less frequently rj (og) after comparatives is usually construed 
with the inf.: vedjTspoi tiaiv r] iooTe dSkvai o'luv Trarspojv IcrrrjprjVTai, they are too 
young to be able to know, &c. The indie, with dv : Anab. 1, 5, 8 : Qclttov ri i^g tiq 
av (^ero. 

G. — Transitive propositions after the verbs to say, &c. 
1. The conjunction that after the verbs to say, &c. is ren- 
dered in Greek either by the construction of the accus. with inf, 
(also frequently by that of the participle) or by means of the 
conj. on, wQ, poet. ovv£Ka, oOovvsko. The mere opt. is combined 
with these conj. whenever the sentence, introduced by 6ti, &c. 
is to be represented as the idea or notion of the speaking or 
writing individual, otherwise the indie, is used, or those moods 
representing it (viz. opt. with av ; or the historical tenses with 
av). The conjunctive mood can never be used after these conj. 
for the same reason which we observed in the section of the 
part, denoting any cause or reason. 

Examples : HdvreQ ofxdXoyovffiv, ojq r/ aperr) KparKxrov eari. — Anah. 
4, 5, 10. avrai rjpujTOjy ahrovc, tlveq elev' 6 ^e Ipjurivevg elTre, on Tvaph 
fiaaiXicog TropEvoLvro' cil ^e cnreKph^avro, on £tr/, &c. Or with the indie. 
and opt. alternately (ibid. 2, 1, 3). ovtol eXsyoVf on Kvpog fjey riQvr]- 
KEv, 'AptaToe ^£ 7rE(j)Evyu)g Eir}, &c. ; and the opt. with av : ibid. — Kal 
Xiyoif on TtEpifXEivEiiv av avrovg, &c. Compare Cyrop. 1, 6, 3. 1, 3, 13. 

Obs. 1. That the subject of the dependent sentence is frequently put in an oblique 
case in the principal one will be explained in § 151. I. 6. We have but to add, that 
expressions like the following : it is known, manifest, concealed, it is said, reported, 
are frequently construed in a joersona^. manner ; ex. gr. Xen. Cyrop. \, 4, 2. 6 'K.vpog 
^riXog Tjv on vTrepKpojSs'iro ; though more usually with the participle, drjXog ijv 
eiri6vfia>v, (TTrevdojv, &c. {Anab.) e^rjyyeXOr] rrfv "OXvvBov TroXiopKoJv, Sec. See 
§ 144, 5. a. and § 151. I. 7- 

Obs. 2. The German conj. dass (that) may be rendered also by ots als (when) 
after the verbs to remember, to hear ; ex. gr. Thuc. 2, 21. jjisuvrjfiEvoi Kal IlXticrro- 
dvaKva, ore da^aXojv d7r£%wp>;(7£ iroXiv : literally, remembering the time, when PL 
Sec. ; compare II. o. 18. 

Obs. 3. The German conj. dass (that) may also be rendered by el, after the verbs 
Qavjjid^u), I wonder, dyaTrdcj, I am content, aiax^vofxai, I am ashamed, and some 
other verbs denoting the affections of the mind ; since the Attics avoided speaking in 
a positive manner even when making the most positive assertions. This el, how- 
ever, can only be properly translated by dass (that) when it is construed with the 
indie. Xen. Cyrop. 4, 5, 20. oudkv Oavfidt^oj, el Kva^dprjg oKveX irepl rjixcov. 
Demosth. Mid. 29. ovk ^c^^wv^j? el toiovto kukov kitdyei r^, that he brought such a 



SYNTAX. 387 

misfortune upon somebody, ^sch. c. Ctes. p. 537. R. ovk aycnrq. d fiy) c'iktiv eduKev, 
that he remained unpunished. The same after x'^^^'^^Q 0£pw. Xen. Cyr, 5, 5, 12. 

Obs. 4. "On stands in a pleonastic manner when the very words of an individual 
are quoted ; ex. gr. Xen. Cyrop. o, 2, 9. 6 Kvpog aTreKpivaro, on, icprj, w Toj(3pva, 
olofxai, &.C. 

H. — Direct and indirect interTogative propositions. 

1. Direct interrogative propos. are usually introduced by a 
particle of interrogation^ as {apa, aWo tl rj, ovkovv, fiwv; 
double questions by Trorepov — rJ ; see § 150.) or by a pron. inter- 
roff., to which also the interrog. adv. pronouns belong, as ttou, 
TToT, &c. They are construed as independent propos., being such 
by nature. The Greek, however, is fond of using in questions 
the opt. with av, as the more uncertain way of speaking : ri 
ELTToiQ av ; TTtog av oioiTo ', — On the conj. in interrogations, im- 
plying doubt, see § 139, 1, 1. 

2. Indirect interrogative propos. are introduced either by 
the part, d {fjv), ivhether, u fxi], ivhether not, (double questions 
by are — aVf, Trdrfpov — ?),) or by the indirect interrogative pro- 
nouns or adv. 'pron. : oarig, ottov, ottojc, o7rr]XiKog ; in lieu of 
which the direct interrog. pron. rig, ttov, &c. are also very fre- 
quently employed. The construction of these sentences agrees 
with that of dependent propos., and is therefore in its material 
points explained, by what we said in the preceding sections. 
We have but to add, that in the construction with the conj., av 
is not to be referred to the interrog. part., as was the case with 
the part. 7'elative. But the Greek makes use of this construction 
only after negative propos., so that this conJ. is nothing else but 
the conj. deliberativus, explained in § 139, 1, 1, which will be 
seen by the following examples : Soph. (Ed. R. 1367. ovk oIS' 
OTTwg as (pio f^epovX^vaOai Ka\Cog. Xen. Cyrop. 8, 4, 16 (8). ra 
^£ iKirwfiara^ £0rj, oi)ic oW, u. Xpvaavra tovtm du). Eurip. Or. 
713. KOVKET elaXv iXTTic^eg, oTrrj rpaTTOfxzvog Oavarov (^vy b). 

Obs. After affirmative propos. either the indie, (or the mood representing it) is 
used or the opt. ; the latter principally after historical tenses ^. Attentive reading 
will furnish sufficient examples. Respecting the indie, see the following Obs. 

1 That we sometimes meet with the conj. also after affirmative sentences, cannot 
appear strange, since there are certain affirmative modes of speaking, where the 
conj. dubltatims maybe admissible ; ex.gr. in double questions : ^sch. Prom. 779. 
kXov ■'^ap, rj TO. Xoiird croi (ppdau), f] rbv eKXvaovr' efis. Comp, II. v. 742. a. 307. 
t. 702. Herod. 1, 53. Kpolrrog everkWeTo k—iipu)T^u rd ;^p/]0Ti7pta, ti a t p a- 
TevTjraL stti Uspaag Kpolcrog, ichether he was to risk a tear against the Persians ; 
yet afterwards we meet with: Kai tl nva arparbv TrpoaGsoiro <jviJ.fj.axov : 
this being a simple question : ivhether in case the god advised to declare icar, he 
should try to get allies. Hither belongs also the seeming independent a'i Kt or d ks 
with the conj. in Homer ; ex. gr. II. s. 279. a. 420. al fee rux*^/"; TriOrjrai. 

c c 2 



388 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

General observations on the use of the moods in dependent 
propositions. 

Obs. 1. The rule, that the conj. stands after principal tenses, the opt, after hiS' 
toriccd, has heen found confirmed, though only in a very general manner. The 
changing, therefore, of a principal tense (in a simple or independent propos.) into 
an historical tense, must greatly influence and modify the moods in dependent pro- 
pos. ; for instance, in all cases where grammar distinguishes between the construc- 
tion with the conj. and that with the opt., we shall find that the former will be more 
readily combined with a principal tense, the latter more readily with an historical 
one. £'a;.^r. the sentence : kui, kdv ti txcjixsv, dwaofxev, Avhen made dependent 
upon kKsXevffs would be changed into : ical riixag, e'l ti 'ixomiv, sk. dovvat. Or the 
example from Xen. Anab. 2, 5. in B. 2, with the change into a principal tense : 
01 iTTTrtig, 0T(}i dv Tvyxdvojaiv "'EXkiqvL, TtavTaq KTe'ivovai. Or that from Anab. 
3, 5, 18, in C. 1. TrapayysXXei dvaTraveaOai, eTreiSotv dtnrvrjcTOjcn. Thus says Isceus 
de Aristarchi her. 17. oi /x£j/, ora v Trspi %p?7juarwv ^worw^wcri, rove; (T<psrk- 
povg avTu>v TraTdaQ fig erspovg oiKiovg (.la 7:0 lov aiv, "iva [ii) /icracrxajcrt rrjg 
Tov TTarpbg drifJtiag. ovtol Se dpa eig vTTOXptMV ovaiav Kal oiKoOev eideTToiovv 
a<pdg avrovg, 'Iva Kal rd inrdpxovra rrpo (t aTToXkaeiav. However, since the 
use of the opt. does not depend alone upon the preceding tense, but chiefly upon 
the notion and idea which the writer intends to convey, we meet with a great 
many instances in which, for example, the construction with the conj. after his- 
torical tenses is left unchanged. This is principally the case with the particles de- 
noting purpose or design (see E. 1,2.) and with jii?) after the verbs to be afraid, 
&c. (see § 148, 4.) And just as fi'equently the particles lav, ocftiq dv, ottov dv, 
BTTSiSdv are used with the conj. in a narration, principally in an oblique speech, 
when in the direct speech the same construction would be used ; ex. gr. Xen. Hell. 
2,1,24. Kvffav^pog Tag vavg kKsXi.vai.ve7teaQai eTrtiSdv Ss s k:/3 Ji cri, aTTOTrXav. 
Only those propos. which commence with oVi, d>g (that) and the dependent interrog. 
sentences are not readily to be met with, containing the mere o/jf. without dv, 
when dependent upon a principal tense (see G. and H.). „ 

Obs. 2. We have observed, respecting the part, dv, that it is frequently found in 
dependent propos, construed with the conj., whilst the opt. does not admit of it. But 
it is by no means unfrequent that, whilst the part, dv in propos. construed with the 
conj. is intimately connected with the conjunction or pronoun, the opt., after the 
same propos. has undergone the change into this mood, retains nevertheless the 
part, dv with the conjunction or pronoun, without, however, forming on that ac- 
count that mood which we mentioned in § 12L9, 3, 4. (We would advise the be- 
ginner to consider in the mean while such and similar instances as exceptions to 
the general rule,) Hence we not unfrequently meet with instances of cxTTig dv, 
ETTfiddv, 'iwg dv, irplv dv, otcotuv, oTViog dv, nay, even orav and tdv with the opt, 
mood ; ex.. gr. Xen. Cyrop. 5, 5. init. STrkareXXev avTip rJKeiv, oTrwg (TvfijSovXov 
yiyvoLTO, o,Ti dv doKoir] Trpdrruv. Anab. T, 5, 8. efi'sfivrjTO, Mg, eTreiddv sttI 
OdXarrav aTr kXOoi, Trapadwaoi avTt^ BicrdvOrjv. ibid. 7> 7j 57. tdsovTO [xrj 
drctXBtXv, Trplv dv utt ay dyoi to crrpaTtVfxa Kal Qi}ij3pa)vi 7ra padoif]. De- 
vnosih. Mid. 5. ttjv 7rapa(TKevr)v,7]v dv iro p iaaiTO Tig,({Jt<T6e xpv^^^i- ^l^piZ^c^Oai. 
The same after orav, ^scli. Pers. 448 ; after kdv, Thuc. 8, 27. Yet many of 
these instances are not sufficiently confirmed by MSS., and hence in editions the 
want of uniformity as to the conj. and opi. moods. See besides, Thuc. 2, 93. (/i?) dv.) 
Xen. Anab. 7, 4, 2. (oTtcjg dv.) 

Obs. 3. The mood peculiar to the oblique speech, principally in narration, is the opt., 
and hence it likewise usually stands in intercalated sentences belonging to the 



SYNTAX. 



389 



former; ex.gr. Xeu. Ages. 1, 10. Ti(X(ra(j)kpvr]g wfioasv, d CTrdaairo, sojq tXQouv, 
ovQ TTSfx-ipeiQ TvpoQ [3aai\sa ayysXovg, diaTTpd^eaOai, &c. But as the Greek 
language employs the indie, in dependent propos. far more frequently than the 
Latin tongue, (for example, after the part, denoting purpose or design, see B. 
Obs. 2.) so do we often meet with the indie, in intercalated sentences making part 
of an oblique speech. Greek writers in general are fond of turning suddenly from 
the indirect speech into the direct one, {ex.gr. Xen. Cyrop. 1, 4, 28. extr. Hell. 2, 1, 25.) 
and in the same manner we suddenly meet with the indie, where, according to all 
syntactical rules, we should expect another mood, and where the Latin tongue 
invariably uses the conj. One example will be sufficient : Anab. 1,3, 14 : Elg ^k 
di] sItts, arpaTrjyovQ [Jiev kXsaOat dWovg wg ra'i^Jcrra, tint) (SovXerai KXeapx^Q 

drrdyfiv' kXOovTag Sk Kvpov aiTtiv TrXola, wg diroTrXsoiev kdv Sk jxtj did(^ 

Tavra, (see Obs. 1.) rjysixova airelv Kvpov, ofTTig did cpiXiag rrjg x*^9^Q d Travel' 

Treixtpai dk, kuI TrpoKaraXtj-ipoixsi^ovg rd UKpa, oTTOjg jxfi (pQaGOiGi (see E. 1.) 

lxr]TE 6 TLvpog fxijre oi KiXiKsg KaraXa(36vT£g, u)v TroXXovg kui iroXXd ;i^pi7/xara 
e'%oju£v rjpTraKOTsg. 

§ 140. — Of the Infinitive. 

1. The infin. is used in Greek not only in all those instances 
where the Latin language, but also where the German and 
English languages employ the infin. with or without the part. 
(zu) to, and frequently where the three languages use co?2JunC' 
tions. The infin. is used : 

1.) as the subject of a propos., as in Latin, after the 
impersonal locutions : SeT, TrpoaiiKU, kqXov IcjTiy ayaOop Igtl, 
and many others, ea^. gr. du \iyuv' ri^v 9r}pq,v. 

2.) as the completion or determination of certain verbs, 
which do not convey a complete notion without their being 
followed up by an infin. This is not only the case where 
the Latin language likewise uses the infin. as after to be 
able, to be in the habit of, to remember, &.c., but also where 
in Latin a conjunction {ut, quin, quominus) stands, as after 
to beg, to command, to doubt, &c. ex.gr. oToo-r uiA wovtTv' 
diojuai GOV napafiEVEiv' irapuivicj Xiyuv, &c. — ^About the 
article before the infin. see section 5. 

Obs. 1. A definite tense with a conj. (ore, wg, oTTcjg, ojcrre,) may in most cases 
likewise be used instead of the infin. The use, therefore, not only of the infin. but 
also that of the propos. beginning with conjunctions, is far more extended in 
Greek than in Latin, since the construction is not confined, as in Latin, in certain 
instances to the use of the infin., and in others to the use of conjunctions. 

2. The infin. is further used to denote a purpose or conse- 
quence, where in Latin a conjunction or the construction with 
the gerund or partic. fut. pass, is used. 

Examples : "FjCcjKeu avro ^ovX(o (poprjaai, he gave it to a slave to carry ; 
6 dvdp(jJTrog 7ri(pvKe (piXeiv, man is born to love ; irapi-^u) kfxavrov, kpiorav, 
I produce myself to he examined ; 'lttttov Ttapeix^ t(o avSpl dva(3f}vcu — ■ 
iiXQov iheiv ae : Anab. 2, 2, 3. 'Ejuoi Qvopiivto livat em tov (oaatXia 



390 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

ovK eyiyrero ra lepd, when I sacrificed to march against the Jcinc/, {when 
I made the usual sacrifice before the march,) the sacrifice was not aus- 
picious, and further on, 'leyai Ze Trapd rovg Kvpov 0tXovc, ttclvv KaXd 
ilixiv TO. lepd i)v, hut to go to the friends of Cyrus, {to join the friends,) 
the sacrifice was very 'propitious to us ; taken from the common ex- 
pression, EKaWiepeL raura Trpdrreir, Herod. 6, 76. 

3. Allied to this is the i?ifin., which is construed with an adj. 
(or subst.) as a determination or modification ; 'ETrtrZ/Sttoc ttoluv 
Ti, apt, able to do something ; ov ^etvog bgtl Xiysiv, aXX alvva- 
TOQ (Tiyav, he is not clever at speaking, but incapable of remaining 
silent ; — Eurip. ^hvcli ywaiKEg EvpiaKeiv rix^uQ, women ai'e apt 
to invent {use stratagems). — Or with a pass, meaning, (where the 
Latin has the supine in u,) padiog voriaat, easy to be observed, 
TToXig x^Xeirri Xa(5uv : — ii^v cikovelv, delightful to hear {suave 
auditu. Homer davfia l^iaOai \ wonderful to be seen {a ivonder 
to the sight, " mirabile visu"). The infin. pass, is likewise used 
in such cases; OrjXvcpavrig o^OrivaL, of feminine appearance (like 
Horace^s niveus videri). 

4. That wore (less frequently wg) may be inserted before the 
infin., w^hen the latter expresses a consequence, is obvious from 
§ 139. F. This is chiefly the case when a pron. demonstr. pre- 
cedes the infin., ex. gr. y]v ^e Tr^irai^^vfiivog ourwc, ware iravv 
pa^Lwg £X£<v apKovvra, (Xen. Mem. \, 2, 1.) or for distinctness' 
sake, Xen. Cyrop. 3, 2, 29. (pr\G\v TTeipdaeaOaL iroiricjai, wgtz 
(je vofiVCuv KoXCog (dajdovX^vaOaL (on account of the four infin.). — 
About intercalated sentences with wg, o(jov and the infin., see 
Obs. 5. 

Obs. 2. About ri oxtts after comparatives see § 139. F. Obs. 2. Sometimes even 
on stands before the infin. in the same manner as on before a direct speech, (see 
§ 139. G. Obs. 4.) ex. gr. Xen. Cyrop. 1, 6, 18. Xsytig av on ovde aTpanqyov aQyov 
ovdev ofeXoQ tlvai. 

5. That the infin. takes the art. to, and that it is susceptible 
of being declined, has been mentioned in § 125, 8. All kinds 
of determinations and modifications of the object, or such as* 
are of an adverbial nature, may be joined to the infin., as : to 
KoXCyg aTToOavHV, to Tovg cpiXovg a^iicav, to vtto tCov (^iXwy 
o^LKuaQai, &c., so that entire propos. may be headed by the art. 
The infin. therefore stands : 

1.) when it is the subject of a propos. expressing a 

general sentence (maxim), ex. gr. ^aX^-rrov to iroieiv, to Si 

K^XEvcrai paciov. 

' This aorist of the middle voice is, according to the practice of the Epics, simply 
active. (§ 135. Obs. 4.) 



SYNTAX. 



391 



2.) when the infin. is dependent upon a preposition, 
(in which case, in German, a definite tense with a conj. is 
used,) or when the construction requires a gen. or dat., 
ex.gr. ^ AQr]va 'ippiipe tovq ovXovg dia to rriv 6\pLV avTTjQ iroidv 
aiuLop(l)ov, {for its rendering her face ugly) because it deformed 
her face, to (pvXa^ai ayaOa tov KT{]<TaadaL 'xaXeTTtoTepov. — 
TO filv ovv iTTiopKOv KoXuv Tiva cLvev TOV TQ TT ETT pay fiiv a 
SiiKVVvaL, \oiSopia kcTTiv, (Demosth.) — to Xiy^iv, djg ^a, 
julytcTTOv k(jTi orifiHOv TOV (^povuv £u. — TO ttXovthv Igtlv iv 
Tw \pri(y9aL fiaXXov i) Iv t<o K£KTr}(TOai. 

Obs. 3. But when the injin. serves for a nearer determination or modification of 
another verb or adj., i. e., when it is in the accus. (§ 131, 1, 6.) no art. is prefixed. 
The art. then, in this case, is only used when the infin. with a particular stress stands 
first. Xen. 3Iem. 4, 3, 1. to [liv ovv XsKriicovg Kai irpaKTiKovg yiyveaOai tovq 
avvovTaq ovic ecTTrevcev ; or when the infin. is the real object, as in Cyrop. 1, 4, 21. 
ojdTreg de kviov ■yevvaHog (p'speTai rrpbg Kcntpov, ov-iog 6 Kvpog l^speTO, fiovov bpCov 
TO Traitiv tov oKidKonivov. We further direct the attention to the infin. with to 
where the construction would require the gen.: Thuc. 3, 1. tov ofiiXov dpyov to }xri 
TO. iyyvg Trjg uroXsojg icaicovpys^v. Comp. 2, 53. Plat. Lack, p, 190, e. 

6. They are besides at Uberty to insert subordinate propo- 
sitions between the aiHicle and its infin. ; To Se ocra y' T^Sc'toc v 
^u^77 Si)(_ETai, TavTa LKavtog eKiroveXv k^OKijua^s, but that as much 
as nature takes with pleasure, shoidd be sufficiently worked out 
[by exercise), that {is what) he approved of. 

Obs. 4. The infin. with the article in the gen., sometimes, but generally only in 
whole propositions, denotes a viotive, purpose ; Ovk cnrijXOe, tov [xe doicsiv afxeXeXv 
{not to seem neglectful). "Bveica is commonly considered as omitted and understood. 
See Heind. ad Plat. Georg. 30, and compare § 132, 6, I. 

Obs. 5. The infin. of some short intercalated expressions may be derived from the 
above-mentioned constructions; ex.gr. from Text 2. cnrXiHyg httsIv, to be short. Thus 
k^ol doKslv, in my opinion, oXiyov or [iiKpov dsTv, almost, ttoXXov deiv, far from it. 
See the personal construction of these expressions in § 150. Thus the infin. stands 
frequently after 6)g, oaov in intercalated sentences, ex. gr. wg avviXovTi (sc. Xoycji) 
tiTTtiv, to be short (or merely cvveXovti) ; oaov y sfxk dokvai, as far as I knoic ; d)g 
t-Kog dirtiv, b)g eUd<jai, &c.; see Heind. ad Plat. Hip)p. maj. 11. 

Obs. 6. Verbs, implying a negative sense, as to hinder, to deny, &c., add frequently 
the negative pa)'t. [xrj to the infin., where we omit it. About this peculiarity see 
§ 148. Obs. 9. 

Obs. 7- About the use of the infin. in expressions like those of praying, swearing, 
exclaiming, see § 142. 06s. 5. and b., and after 57 [xi^v, § 149. 

§141. 

1. Whenever the infi?i. has a subject of its own, the rule is 
that this subject is in the accus. This is the case with the 
infin. with, to, To ufxapTavuv avOpojnovg ovTcig ov OavfianTov, that 



392 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

men do err, is not to be luondered at ; Oh^lv lirQayfiy], ^la to 
Ikuvov iiri TrapEivai, because the other was not present ; OvdsiroTs 
oqOljq s\ei, (see § 150^ e->i(^Eiv,) ro KaKwg 7ra<T)(^ovTa cifivveaOai avri- 
^pujvTa KQKwg, that when one has suffered wrongs, one be revenged 
by returning the evil. 

2. The Greeks have, Hke the Latins, a peculiar construction 

of the accus. ivith the infin. 
after verbs on which another proposition is immediately de- 
pendent, especially after verbs denoting to say, believe, &c. they 
put the subject of the dependent proposition in the accus. and 
its own verb in the infin. ex.gr, ; 01 /avOoXoyoL (paal, rov Ovpavov 
EvvacFTEvcraL irpCiTov rov iravrog, mythologists say that Uranus first 
ruled over the universe. This construction is invariably made 
use of in a narration, related in an oblique speech, whilst in 
English and German the conjunction that {dass) is used. Or 
this conjunction may likewise be rendered in Greek by on, ^g, 
see § 139, G., and in particular cases also by the construction 
with the part., see § 144, 4. 

3. When the subject belonging to the infin. is the same with 
that contained in the principal sentence, the former is not ex- 
pressed, when coming after such verbs, as ought to be construed 
with the accus. cum infi7i., ex. gr. i(pr\ airov^aZuv, dixit se festi- 
nare. The beginner must therefore be on his guard not to be 
misled by the Latin construction in such cases, and not trans- 
late the Latin se (me, te) by lavrov. Comp. § 142. Obs. 1. 
and 2. 

Ohs. The Greeks likewise go further than the Latins in the use of the infin., when 
they quote the words of another or in any dependent sentence, by more usually con- 
struing the relatives and the first part of a proposition in the same manner; Plato 
Alc'ib. \, 40. "E^t; TraptXBiXv %a»pav — rjv KaXelv tovq ETrixwpiovg Zu)vr]v — 'he said 
that he had passed by a country, which the inhabitants called the Zone' Herod. 1, 86. 
'Q,Q de dpa [nv TrpocxTrjvai tovto, avaartva^avTa kg tqiq bvoiiaaai 2)0AQ"N,?/ia^ ithen 
this recurred to his mind, he three times repeated the name of Solon with heavy sighs. — Plato 
Phcedr. 84. Suj^tu^ojuai <joi, [I implore you,) eiTrep ajjieivov ravO' rifxtv elvai, ravra 
yiyvecrOai. Xenoph. Mem. \, \, 13. ^(j)KpaTr]Q I9av[xa(rev, si fii] (pavepbv avrolg 
icTTLV, on ravTa ov dvvarov kcTiv dvOpujiroig tvpdv sttsl kuI tovq [xsyiffTOV (ppo- 
vovvraq sttI Tip Trepl rovroov Xsyeiv ov ravrd do^d^^siv: here the first part of the 
proposition comes after with eTrtl, as is usual in such a connexion, for the second 
part is contained in what goes before ; this the author had stated directly in his own 
name ; he now states the first in Socrates's speech, and declares it by the infin. used 
on quoting another's words. See also Plato Alcib. 1, 55. {Note 7-) 

§143. 
1. When other modifications or determinations than attri- 



SYNTAX. 393 

butes or predicates are joined to the infin. in the shape of 
subst. or adj., it follows of course that, if the subject be in the 
accus., they also must be in the accus. ; "Qjiinf]v ere Traguvai julovov. 
— "AnavTEQ vofii^oiuLEV ttiv jriv acpalpav elvai, 

2. But when the subject of the infin. is not expressed^ the 
Greeks have a very peculiar construction called 

Attraction, 
by means of which these additions are not in the accus., but in 
the same case in which the object is expressed in the antece- 
dent proposition ; they are^ as it were^ attracted by the pre- 
ceding verb, the word of the subject not being mentioned. 
There are, however, two cases to be distinguished, 

1. If the subject of the hifin., which is omitted, be at 
the same time subject {nomin.) of the antecedent verbum 
finitum, on which the infin. is dependent, the additions to 
this infin. must also be in the nomin. 

6 ^ AXi^avBpog i^aoKSV uvai Aiog vlog, 
(in Latin, dicebat, se esse Jovis filium,) which is likewise the 
case when the subject is not expressed with the first verb, 
t^aGK^Q elvat Sfo-TTorrjc, 
tTTEiaa avTovg dvai Oeog, I persuaded them that I ivas a 



IvofxiZovTo ouS' avToi cnoOricrsaOai, they thought that they 
themselves could not be saved. 
II. S. 101. Ev)(jEO S' ^ AiroWiovL, — pi^uv l/caro/xjSi^v — otWSe 
voaT-naag, Vow to Apollo to offer him a hecatomb, when 
returned home. Here voar^Gag, as added to pi^uv, is in the 
nomin. on account of the cru concealed in iv^^o. 

2.) If the subject of the infin., which is omitted, be only 
the proximate or remote object of the antecedent verb, the 
additions of the infin. are in the same obhque case, in 
which their subject stands as object of the verb ; thus, for 
instance, in the gen. 

l^iovTo avTov uvaL irpoOvfjiov, they intreated him to be 
zealous ; 
or in the dat. 

t^EGTL fjLOL y^viadai ev^aifiovi, 
(just as in Latin, licet illis esse beatis ;) 'ATraTrev avroig 
vavTaig elvai, he forbade them to be mariners ; Talg ttoXectl 
TOVTO juaXXov XvcjLTeXu, rj covXaig o^drivai yiyvofxivaig : 



391 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

or lastly in the accus., in which case it comes again under 
the principal rule^ 

fceXfuw CTE uvai w^oOviiiov. 
See about the attraction § 151^ 1^ 7. 

3. The same attraction takes place, when the proposition 
with the infin. has the art. to before it. — Upog to ctu^^e^ov ^wcrt 
^la TO (l>iXavTOL dvai, they live for their own interest, because 
they are selfish: — Ar]/iocr0£vr]c (j^wvv&TaiTt^ ypacpelg a7ro</)uyay, 
Demosthenes boasts of having been acquitted of the charges 
brought against him : — Ov yap iKTrijuLwovTai IttI t(^ dovXoi, aXX 
£7rt rw ojLioioi toXq Xuttoji^volq uvai^ (speaking of colonists,) they 
are sent forth not to be slaves, but to-be equal to those who are 
left behind; l(f rifxlv Igti to liTLeLKicFi koX ^avXoic ftvat, it 
rests with us to be virtuous and depraved. But if the subject 
of the infin. be as accus. in the first part of the proposition, 
then the infin. is as usual construed with the accus. ; 'Eiridei^e 
Tag TToXiTeiag 7rpoe\ov(TaQ T(^ diKaiOTipag eivai, he showed that 
states are superior to others for being more righteous. 

4. The infin. is likewise construed with the nomin. in the 
construction with wgte, if the first part of the proposition 
requires it ; Oh^ug TriXiKOVTog Iecjtu) irap" vfilv, Iogte Tovg vofiovg 
irapajdag jultj dovvai diKrjv, let none be so great among you as 
not to be punished^ when he transgresses the laws. 

Ohs. 1 . From these statements, it is obviously incorrect to suppose that the sub- 
ject of the iiijin. is a nomin. in expressions Hke, 'YTrecr^ero avrhq TToirjGSiv. In all such 
instances the subj ect of the infin. is not expressed ; what is in the nomin., is merely 
its modification or determination as here, avrog: the noun omitted is the subject, 
and can be supplied only by di pronoun personal, which is likewise wanting. 

Ohs. 2. Whenever the writers think proper to add the pronoun personal itself, it 
stands, in spite of the nomin. belonging to the antecedent verb, in the accus.: Olfxai 
fiev XrjpeXv [xs, Plato Charm. 45. {Heind. ad Euthyd. 79.) Herod. 2, 2. oi AiyvTrrioi 
ivojjii^ov eojvTovg 7rpu)Tovg yevkaOai Trd-vTCJV dvOpoJTTOJv : here is a particular stress 
upon eowTovQ, that they were those, who ; see besides 1, 34. — Sometimes it occurs that 
we meet with no attraction in the dependent propos., though preceded by a gen. or 
dat. in the principal propos.; the. predicate and the participle are then placed in the 
accus., for the sake of distinctness; ex.gi: Herod. 6, 100. 'AOrjvaicjv IderjOrjadv (t^kti 
j3or]0ovQ yevsaOai. Isocr. Akofiai v}iihv, aKOvaai tCjv Xeyojxkviijv ivOvfirjQkvTag on 
— Anab. 3, 2, 1. "Edo^tp avToTg 7rpo<pvXaKag KaraarrjcravTag crvyKaXtlv TOvg 
(TTpaTioJTag. — Memor. 1, 1, 9. "E^?? diiv, a jxev fxaOovrag ttolsIv 'idwKav oi 9eol, 
jxavOdvHV. Here rolg dvOpwTroig must be mentally supplied as added to 'idajKav, 
but for all that the accus. [xaOovrag is not altered here. Compare below § 144. 06s. 
5. an almost similar proposition in the same passage, in which proposition dv6pu)7roig 
is expressed, and the attraction attended to. — Another kind of attraction is to be met 
with not only after KsXeveiv and some other similar verbs, but also frequently after 



SYNTAX. 395 

TrpsTTfi, TrpoffrjKsi, t'iiari, — when, on an infin. being added, the person is placed in 
the accus.; ex, gr. Eurip. \6yovg, ovg ovk clkovslv Tag yaixovfjisvag TrpsTTSi. 

Obs. 3. On the other hand the attraction really is sometimes so strong, that the 
e-!i.-^Te^?, pronoun personal is with the infin. in i\\e nomin. ; but I know of no other 
instances than where two infin. are dependent on one verb with different subjects, 
of which one only is the same with the subject of the first verb. Demosth. Mid. 65. 
(p. 579. M^iske.) 'Efxe oleaO' vfuv tlao'ianv, vfj,tlg Se vejxCiaOai ; (here on construing 
the sentence ohaOf. must come first alone, which then has the same subject with the 
second wfin. vijxHadai,) think you that I am ahcays to contribute, and you always to 
consumel and further on : NojUj'^gtg — y'lixdc fxev d7roipr](pieXa9ai, av da ovSs TTavataQai, 
but such instances belong to the very numerous cases, in which Attic writers were 
induced by a specious analogy to carry any peculiarity of the language beyond the 
proper bounds of its nature. Compare Schaef. ad Soph. (Ed. M. 958. 

Obs. 4. Whenever Triarevsiv, TrsiOecrOai nvi, is followed by a proposition of which 
the subject is the object of the above-mentioned verbs, it is also construed in the 
infin., and the pronoun avrbg is omitted; Plato C/iar»i. 18. 'Ofxripit) Tnarevtig KuXCjg 
Xsyeiv. Phcedr. 124. M/) 7rt0w/x£0' ahrdig, rkxvy ypdfeiv. But whatever belongs to 
the omitted word of the subject, is likewise in the attraction ; Cyrop. 3, 3, 24. Ovd' 
av TovToig liriaTivov sn/xovoig i.(yeaBai. 

Obs. 5. The infin. is sometimes used in quite an independent way instead of a wish, 
request, command, in the 3 p>ers. either with the subject in the accus., II. y. 285. 
Tpwag — i-m^ovvai, then are the Trojans — to give back, Hesiod, yvf-ivov cnreipeiv, yvjxvbv 
de (3oo)Tei}/, where the subject is to be supposed an indefinite 3^;er50?i — rie-«-which 
is omitted, though A^irgil has the same recommendation in the 2 j^ers. * nudus ara, 
sere Hindus,' or with the 'verb being hnijersonal, Herod. 5, 105. ""Q Zew eKytvsaOaL 
[iOL 'AOrjvaiovg Tiaa(j9ai,that I might be alloiced. But we have still more frequently 
the 

infin. instead of the imper. 
of the 2 pers., and in this case the subject, and what belongs to it, if it be expressed, 
is always in the nomin. II. p. 692. 'AXXa cvy aTxp' 'A%iX^i, Osojv sttI vrjag 'A%atwv, 
EiVav — Plato Soph. 218. "Av S' dpa n T(p firjKSi ttovujv ax^y, ix)) ip.k airidcrOai 
TovTixJV {then do not impute it to me). Verbs like dfi, fXB^vrjcro, &c. are usually supplied, 
but it is better to do without them. See Dorv. Vann. 341. Heind. ad Plat. Lys. 18. 
Matthi^'s Gr. Gr. 544. p. 824. Engl. Tram. 4th ed. 

06s. 6. The infin. with and without to, sometimes serves as an exclamation ex- 
pressive of surprise : Se TavTa dpdaai, ' that thou couldst do such a thing /' To Aia 
voniZeiv, ovTa TtjXiKovTovl, ' that thou, being ofi such an age, canst still believe in 
Jupiter!' Aristoph. iVM6. 816. 



§ 14:S.—Const7'uction with the Pronoun Relative, 

1, The construction of relative propos. with regard to the 
moods, has been explained in § 139, B. We shall now make 
some few isolated remarks^ before we treat of the attraction in 
relat. propos. 

1.) A relat. propos. may not only express purpose or 
object, but also cause and reason, ex.gr. davf^iaarov ttoi^Iq, Bq 
r)iLuv ov^lv ^idwg, loho givest to us nothing or by giving to 
us nothing. Herod. 1, 31. al ^Apydai IfxaKapiZov tyiv fitiripa. 



396 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

o'/wv T^Kvcov licvpr](T£, i. e. OTL roLovTMv T. I. fov haviug such 
children. Similar is the use of the pron. oaog and oloq in 
Horn, in passages as //. c 95. uyKvixogog ^rj fioi, tIkoq, E(T(7£aL, 
oV ayopEVEiQ, where the pron. relat. approaches the signif. 
of 2ipron. demonst. Comp. ^y, 347. (ola fx tooyaq.) Od. d, 
611. ^sch. Prom. 915. 

2.) oLog and oaog frequently stand after toiovtoq, roaovTog, 
precisely for mctte, and are then construed like the latter, 
i. e. usually with the infin., yet so that the pron. relat. 
takes the gender, number, and case of the preceding pron. 
demonstr. 

Examples : Plat. Charm, p. 156. b. eari yap Toiavrrj (ji ^vvajjug) o'la 
fjL}] hvvaaQat t))v KEcpaXrjv vyid ttoieiv. Xen. Mem. 2, 1, 15. hovXog 
roiovToc, olog fj-rjhvl ^saTrorr] XvatrzXeiv. Herod. 6, 137. eiovrovg Ee 
yeviadai toctovtm efceivcjv av^pag afxeivoyac, oao), Tzapeov cntoKrelvat — , 
ovK edeX^aat. An example of the pron. demonstr. being omitted is in 
Thuc. 1, 2. venofitvoi to. avrCJv EKaaroi, oaov awo^jji'. Plat. Theag. p. 

127. C. (popOVfXClL VTTEp TOVTOV, fXl] TLPl CtXXw (sC. TOIOVTU)) £V7U^r;, o'lO) 

70VT0V ^LCKjiQelpaL. Thus o\oq with an infin. becomes quite an adj. : of 
such a nature as, ex. gr. ol Trpoadev oCovtsq iracn ^ojoig oIol rijJLj'eLv 
elair, ol ^e yofxcpLoi oIol Trapa rovrojy ^e^cifxevoi Xeaiveiv. 

3.) In the Greek language, similarly to the Latin, the 
mere pron. relative is often used, where we must say: 
with regard to, as to. 

Examples : Xen. Anab. 6, 1, 129. 6 ^' vf-ieig Evvoelre, 6 tl rirrop av 
crraaig e'iy] kvog dp\()VTog i) iroXXioy, ev 'iffVE 6 ri, &C. Hell. 2, 3, 45. 
a ^' av eItvev, log iyu) elfiL olog fXETaPjoXXEcrQai, KaravoijcraTE, &C. Eurip. 
Or. 564. £0' oig b' cnrEiXElg, (og Trerptjjdfjrai fxe ^e'i, ctKovaop. Comp. 
§ 151. IV. 5. 

Obs. 1. When in two coordinate relative propos., the pron. relat. of the second 
propos. requires to be put in another casus, it is either changed into a pron. demonstr., 
or the pron. relat. of the first propos. is to be considered as sufficient for both 
propos. See § 151. II. 4. — About the subject of the dependent interrogat. jorqpos. 
being frequently placed in an oblique case in the principal propos, see § 151, I. 6. — ■ 
About the construction /card (rvveaiv in r elat. propos. see % 129, 3. — About saTivo'ljiffriv 
OTE, some, sometimes, see § 150. — For those instances where in prose the jorow. relat, m 
is used for the pro/i. demonst. see § 126. — The pronoun relative is not so frequently ■ 
used in Greek as in Latin, instead of the corresponding demonstrative, and of a con- 
nexion with what went before, and probably always is expressive of some emotion, 
Ol i}xol doKoixTiv ala^vvriv ry ttoXel TrepiaTrTsiv, Plato Apol. p. 35. and other examples 
quoted by Matthias, § 477' whilst passages like that of Apollod. 1, 1, 3. Kpovog 
TrpojTtjv [xkv 'EoTtav KaTSTTiev, elra Arjfirjrpav xai "Hpav [xeO' ag JlXovTOJpa Kal 



SYNTAX. 397 

UoaeiSwva, where this form simply serves to vary the connexion, belong to a period 
when the Greek language had already lost its purity. 

2. The nature of the construction with the pronoun relative 
requires properly that there should be with the first verb a 
noun, and with the second the pronoun relative, which refers to 
it^ and each in the casus, which the proposition demands, to 
which it belongs ; Ovrog ecrriv 6 avT)p, ov uSeg : — Mete^wkev 
rifxiv iravTtJv, oaa irapriv : — ^lXov ovk s'x^u, wtlvl Triar^ixjaL av 
^vvaifxr\v. But the subst. of the first verb is frequently omitted, 
and added to the second part of the proposition with the pro- 
noun relative in the same casus; 

ovTOQ Igtlv, ov eiSsg av^pa, 

ovK 'iariv, i]vTLva ou/c rip^sv ap)(riv, there is no magistracy 
but ivhat he has exercised, 
and the last sentence is very often put first for the sake of 
emphasis : 

ov a§£C av^pa^ ovrog eaTiv. 

3. Here too an 

Attraction 
takes place, similar to that of the construction with the infin. 
When the pronoun relative on account of its verb should be in 
the accus., but the noun, to which it refers, is in the gen. or dat., 
and is not attended with any p7'onoun demonstrative, (like ovrog, 
iKeXvog,) the pronoun relative is attracted by it, and takes the 
same case instead of the accus. : 

M-Bradidiog avrto rov airov^ ovirep avrbg e'x^'Ci thou givest 
to him of the bread, ivhich thou hast (thyself), 
where ovmp stands also in the gen. on account of airov, to 
which it refers, instead of being in the accus. ovirep, which the 
verb EX^fv required; again: 

Eu 7rpoG(piperaL rolg (jyiXoig, olg c'x^^j ^^ coriducts himself 
well toivards the friends whom he has. 
— Anab. 1, 3, 16. Toj rjj^fiovL TriarsvcroiLiBv, m av Kvpog Bto, for 
ov av K. d. : — 'EfCjOarrjo-E fXEjaXcov ^prjfiarwv, (j)v 6 TiXtov kire- 
rpairtro avr(^. Even when the requisite accus. properly is that 
of the remote object, Demosth. Mid. 35. Aifcrjv (Lv av a^iKrfiyj ng 
Xap(3avsLv, of the expression a a^iKovfAai, by which I am injured. 
This attraction of course takes place only when the pron. relat. 
expresses- a nearer and as it were an adjective determination and 
modification of the subst., and can therefore not be applied in 



398 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

sentences like the following : iTryvaOrj vtto iravrMV tCjv kavrov 
ttoXltCjv, oiig fx^yaXa w^tXrjcrav. See § 151, 1, 2, 

Obs. 2. The ear being once accustomed to this construction, the pronoun relative 
was mostly put in the same case as the pronoun demonstrative, even when the latter 
was expressed in the first part of the proposition ; Plato Gorg. 452. Oi drjiiiovpyol 
Tovrtjv, o)v hiryvtaiv 6 to (tkoXiop Troirjaag ^ : Xenoph. (Ec. 2. 'Ytto ye rovruuv, h)v 
(TV dtCTToivwv KaXsig ov KwXvonai, which is at the same time an instance of the 
accus. (SscTTToivag,) which is dependent on the second proposition, being also placed 
in the attraction. 

4. In this instance too the noun frequently is removed from 
the first part of the proposition to the second, so that it remains 
along with the pronoun relative in the casus, which the word 
governs, on which it is dependent : 

MeraSiowc avn^, ovirep avroQ t'x^^C c^ltov : — 

Eu 7rpo(T(l)tp£Tai, olg 'i\ei ^lXolq : — 
ttTToXauw, wv £^(0 ayaObJV i ^(pwjuei'oi olg elttov Trpodraraig, 
euSat/xovfc rjcrav, (from ^(^pYiGOaL Trpocrrarr/, to have a leader, 
patron,) ivhilst they had the leaders, whom I mentioned, they 
were happy. This contraction appears still more strange to 
us, when the proposition is an inverted one ; 

Olc £X^^ (piXoLQ, £u TTQO(j(pip£Tai, towards the friends he 
has, he conducts himself well. 

5. When the noun conveys no precise definite idea, or when 
it has been mentioned once before, it is frequently altogether 
omitted, so that the pronoun relative stands alone in a casus, 
to which it properly is a stranger ; 

MeiivnuivoQ <l)v fTTpa^f, 
for f^iejuLVYifiivog tCjv TrpajjuiaTLJv, wv iirpa^^v, and this for a 
£7rpa^£v : — Aeivorspa Icrriv, a fxiXXu) XtyeLV, wv upi]Ka, (for ^hvo- 
repa Ikuviov, a eiprtKa : — ) M£r£7r£jLi7r£70 aAXo (jTpaTavjULa irpog w 
TrpoaOev h^^ (fo^* Trpoc rw GrpaTtv/jLari, o tt. £.). And being 
inverted 

olc £X^5 XP^f^^^' 
for ti b'x^j TovToig xpCojuai. 

6. There is one instance in which the 7iomin. of the pronoun 

^ This form of the proposition as the most perfect is usually considered as the 
fundamental one, but through my investigation of the attraction in general, I at 
least am arrived at the conviction that this is erroneous. (See § 151. I.) It was 
the omission of the pronoun demonstrative, which alone could be an inducement to 
construe the pronoun relative with the preceding word, and thus to round the whole 
expression. But when the Attic writer, to wliom this construction was familiar, 
still added the ptronoun demonstrative for emphasis' sake, we can very easily conceive 
that he had no occasion to recur on that account to his original combination. 



SYNTAX. 399 

relative is likewise liable to this attraction ; viz. when the nomin. 
of the pronoun relative oio^ ought to be construed with uvai in 
the complete proposition, Wavv rjSiwg \aQiZ,ovTai av'^gX roiovrit), 
oiog av u, they very gladly do an agreeable thing to such a man 
as you are, not only the pronoun demonstrative, but also the 
verb elvai is omitted, and the pronoun relative is so attracted by 
the principal proposition, that, along with all the nomin. even- 
tually connected with it, it adopts the case of the 7ioun to 
which it refers, and is even intercalated before that noun, Yldw 
il^iwg ^apiZ^ovrai oloj cto\ avSpt. The noun itself is also fre- 
quently omitted ; XaXeirbv ripov, kuX otqj ye ejuloI ajropov, difficult 
is ivhat you ask, and to a [man) like me very perplexing. The 
instances, where the article of the noun omitted is left standing 
before such pronoun relatives, rolg oloig -^fuv, have been stated 
above § 125. Obs. 6. 

7. When the pronoun relative, on account of a verb like to 
be, to be called, &c. requires another noun in the same case with 
itself, it usually agrees entirely with this in gender and number, 
and not wdth the first noun, to which it properly refers ; Ilapeo-- 
Tiv avT(^ (})6j3og, rjv aiSw KaXovjuiev, a dread came on him, which 
vje call shame, Plat. Crat. 48. Tov ovpavov, ovg ^i) noXovg 
KoXovfjLv: or leaving out the first noun, Elalv kv iij^ilv, ag iXiridag 
6vojua^o/i£y, thei^e are in us {emotio7is) ivhich ive call hopes. 

§ 144. — Construction with the Participle, 

1. A very considerable number of tenses being provided with 
participles in Greek, this language employs them much more 
frequently than any other. Their use is of a threefold nature ; 
they may be employed, 1.) instead of a propos. beginning with 
apron, relative; 2.) instead of a propos. beginning w^ith a con- 
junction, like when, because, after, if, &c. 3.) to serve as a com- 
pletion to the sense of some verbs. — The pariiciple can never 
adopt the art. in the tw^o latter instances, and in the first only 
then when the participle assumes the character of a substantive^ 
i. e. when it is to be translated by is qui or aliquis qui ; whilst 
such relat. propos., as may be changed into propos. beginning 
with a conjunction, are rendered in Greek by the participle 
without an art. 

Examples : Xen. Mem. 4, 2, 28. 01 jikv elcoreg o, tl Troiovcnr, 
iTTLTvyyaiovTeQ (if they succeed or get) wv TrpdrTovcny, tv^ot^oi re Kal 



400 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Tif-noi yiyrovrat. — o'i te uTVOTvyyavovTeQ tCjv TvpayfiaTOOP £7rif?v/xov<Tt, &C. 
For examples where the participle is to be rendered by aliquis qui see 
§ 124. Obs. 3, 1 ; and another one is quoted below in Text 3. 

2. Propos., beginning with conj., principally such as denote a 
relation of time or of mode and manner, (when, since, after, 
whilst,) or such as convey the idea of cause and reason, {be- 
cause,) or of condition, {if) o£ limitation, {although, see Obs. 6.) 
or of purpose, {so that, see Text 3.) may be rendered by a par- 
ticiple whenever clearness and distinctness be not impaired by 
it, and when the subject of the propos. beginning with a conj. is 
already contained or expressed in the preceding verb, in which 
case this participle takes the casus of the noun of the subject. 

Examples : ETreffKexpctfirjv top eral^ov voaovvra, who, or when, or 
because he was sick. — rw jueyaXw (SacrLXel oh Trdrpiov karLv av^pog 
uKpouadai fjii) -KpoaKvvriaavTOQ, who or if he does not prostrate himself. — 
Xen. Mem. 1, 4, 8. to craifia (Tvin'ipiJ.o(TTal aoi, jjciKpov fiepog XajiovTL 
eKciffTOV. — Demosth. ovro) oe~i tciq yvuJfAaQ e^eiy, u)q idv Sir], TrXevaTEOv 
elg TCLQ vavQ £[x(3d(Tiv, a participle, which in translating is better 
placed before the verb connected with it and joined by the particle 
' and ;^ we must make up our minds to take to our ships, if necessary, 
and to sail. 

3. The participle of the fut. is particularly employed in sen- 
tences which we render by ^ to' ' in order to,' ^for to' ^ that' 

Examples : TaDra jmadiby 6 Kvpog eTrefjLxpe rov Tu)[3pvap Itto'^oixevov, 
Cyrus having learned this, sent Gobryas to see : — Tdv aSiicovvTa irapd 
TovQ StKaffrdg ayEiv hel hiKr]v ScoffovTa, that he may suffer a punishment : 
— Demosth. Tovg av/Jfid-^ovQ del aw^eiy, kul tovq tovto 7rou](70PTag 
crrpaTiijjTag ek-ke}x-kelv, here the article, according to § 124. Obs. 3, 1. 
stands with the indefinite object, and to send soldiers to do it. 

4. By connecting this construction of the part, wdth that of 
the pron. relative and that of the infin., and by making one 
part, even dependent upon another part, (in which case the part. 
are not to be joined by fcai,) the Greek can entwine several 
propositions, one with the other, without creating any con- 
fusion. 

Examples : 'Emra fxovov Sie'^rJEi, a TOvg Uovrag fiye'iTO T£dvr]KEvai, 
we shall be obliged to say, he 'f elated only that, of which he thought 
that those who had seen it were dead. Demosth. Mid. 42. TifxaTe 
uvT(o ovK tXaaaovog, H) oaov KaTcidelg iravaeTaL Tijg v(3p£ii)g, punish him 
with no less a fine than such as will, when he has paid it, abate his 



SYNTAX. 401 

insolence. II. c. 372. rov o' ti/p' t^pwoj^-a, eKktgojjlsvov Trepi (pvcrac, 
Avhere the first _par^. is more nearly determined by the latter. Comp. 
Eur. Suppl. 231. Iph. T. 714. (696.) 

Obs. 1. The construction Kara cruvEcrtv is not very rare with the parf., and that not 
only as to the number and gender, (for an example of this kind, see § 129, 3.) but 
also as to the casus ; wliicli occurs in consequence of the construction having imder- 
gone a change in the mind of the writer. Thus we meet with a. pai-t. in the nam. 
after, and sometimes before a siibst. which stands in the dat.: Plat. Ap. 6. Kai 
CLaXsyoixevog avTi^, edo'^s fxoi ovtqq 6 dvrjp (i. e. lv6]j.i(^ov). — Thuc. 7> 42. Kai ToXg 
^vpaKocrioig KaraTrXrj^LQ ovk oXiyrj tykvero — opuivreg (i. e. KaTi~Xa.yr](Tav); after an 
accus. ; Eurip. Hec. 964. aiSibg fj,' ?%ft, ev reside ttotju*^ rvyx^vovcr', "iv t/jui vvv (i.e. 
aidovj-iai) ; after a gen.: Herod. 4, 132. Aapeiov y yv(x)fj.T] trjv — eiKaZujv (i.e. Aapeiog 
Ti)v yvwfiiiv f ixO 5 ^^^^ <^<^'^- ^fter a, gen.: Thuc. 1, 61. rjv Sk yrcoixt] rov 'ApiaTeojg, 
TO fxkv fxi.0' eavTov (yrparoTrecov e^ovTi, eTnrrjpHv &c. 

5. Propositions, which serve as a completion to the imperfect 
sense of some verbs^ are frequently construed with pai^ticiples, 
where we introduce the propos. by using the conjunction, that, 
or to, for, of. Such a pai^t. considered as a verb, either has 
the same subject with the preceding verb, as in the other 
constructions with the participle, and consequently is in the 
nomin. or has a different subject and is therefore along with 
this subject^ as the proximate or remote object of the preceding 
verb, in one of the oblique cases. 

This construction, however, can only be employed, when the 
nature of the par^f. admits of it, i. e. when the meaning is to be 
conveyed that something is really in existence ; quite independ- 
ent of whatever notion the writer may have of it. (Objective.) 
If this is not the case, the infn. is used, which besides may be 
employed in some instances for the part., but the reverse never 
takes place. Wherever the pai^t. is used, the sentence can 
always be considered such as may be resolved by means of 
since, because, such a one as, &c. The difference between these 
two constructions may be easily understood by the following 

Examples : (baivofxaL u)v, apparet me esse, (f)aivop.ai shai, esse videor ; 
— fiavQavo) wr, I remark that I am, pi, dvai, I learn how to be ; — uv 
■Keptopu) ae tovto Troo'/o-ai'ra, / shall not quietly overlook your having 
done so, oh tt. cte tovto TroLfjaai, I shall not suffer that you do so. 

Hence, since there is no particular class of vei'bs which as 
such absolutely demand this construction with the part., and 
since it depends entirely upon tfte meaning which is to be 
conveyed by the sentence which contains the completion to the 
imperfect sense of the preceding verb, we think it to be suf- 
ficient to point out merely the general nature of those verbs, 

D d 



403 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

with which this construction with the part, is most readily 
combined. These are the verbs, denoting perception either by 
means of the senses or of the mind ; those expressing the idea 
of any thing being apparent or to be made apparent ; of being 
filled with any thing, of letting to happen, of persevering, ceasing, 
beginning, acting wrongly, &c. 

a.) Examples on the nomin. — (here the proper subject may, as 
usual, be wanting,) Alcr^xy^'o/JLai ravra ttoimv, or TvoiiiaaQ, I am 
ashamed of doing this, or of having done this (whilst mayyvofjLca 
TToieiv means, / am ashamed to do this, yet hesitating about doing 
it) ; — Me/ivr)(To ardpcjirog wv, remember being a man, that thou 
art a man : — Ou awieaav }iaTr]v Trov^ovvTeg, they did not perceive 
that they laboured in vain : — Herod. 3, 1. Aiap£J3Xr)i.iipoQ oh 
jjLavdarsig ; do you not understand that you are deceived ? 
Demosth. Mid. 18. 'Ei^ ^ yap avrbg evdaifxioy fjht yeyoviog 
iroXiTeiq., in which state (i. e. the state in which) he knew that 
he had been happy ; — (ol^a yeyovibc, I know that I am be- 
come ; — ) Isocr. ^KOTrovjJLevog evpiaKov ov^a}x{i)g av ctAXoc tovto 
Btairpa^dfjiEvoc, weighing it in my mind, I found that I could 
not accomplish it otherwise (compare § 139, 5). Hence also in 
particular with passives, (arising from the following construc- 
tion,) 'E^eXj^XtyKTat rjjjidg airarCJv, he has been convicted of 
imposing on us ; aTnqyyeXQr) 6 ^/XiTTTTog Triv"0\vvQov TcoXiopicCjy, 
it was reported that Philippus besieged Olynthus. And the 
case is the same with the following expressions, which are con- 
strued in an analogous manner : ^rjXog, (pavepog dfxi ttoiujv, &c. 
for which see § 151, I. 7. 

b.) Examples of the accus. — 01 TLipaai Zia^vrifiovevovcn tovKvoov 
e^ovTa (pvcTLv, the Persians relate that Cyrus had, literally, they 
remembered him as one who had, hence in the pass. 'O Kiipog 
BiajbLrrjjjioyeveTaL e'xwv, see the preceding construction : — Ot^a 
avvolaoy rJ to. ^iXriara eIttovti, I know that it will be ad- 
vantageous to him, who shall have given the best counsel, from 
the impersonal expression aviK^ipei, it is expedient, profitable. 

c.) Examples of the genitive and dative. — 'Yipdofxriv avrcoy 
olofxiviop elvai cro^wraVwv, I perceive that they fancied them- 
selves very wise, aocpuyTariov for -ovc, because of the attraction 
according to § 142, 2, 2. : — OvdeTrore iiETEfiiXrjffi p.oi aiyriaavri, 
00£y|ajU£%'w ce TroXXaKiOff (from iderajjeXei poi, I repent,) I never 
yet repented having been silent, but frequently that I had 
spoken, a saying of Simonides : — Plato de LL. 857, 6. Oi/^eV 
Bta(j)epei tw KXi-KTovri [xkya i) afxiKpov v(f)eXofieva}) it is of no con- 
sequence, makes no difference to the thief (viz. when he under- 



SYNTAX. 403 

goes his punishment) whether he has stolen much or little, 
Thuc. 1, 118. EirEpu)Tii}v Tov dedy, el (sc. avrdlo) iroXey-ovatv 
(ifXtLVOV icTTaL. 

Obs. 2. With verbs construed with the pronoun reflective, as (Tvyoida kfiavrti), I am 
conscious, this part, may stand in two different cases, "Evvoida ajxavnf (to^oq Cjv, 
Plato, and, 2avr<^ avvydeig adiKovvri, Demosth, : — 'Eavrbv ovdtlg ojuoXoyeT 
KUKovpyoQ S)v, {G-nom.) might also have been KUKovpyov ovra. 

Obs. 3. When aKoveiv signifies to hear with one's own ears, it can only be 
construed with the part.: ctKOvoi <rov XsyovTog, I hear you speak; but aKovu) ae 
Xsysiv,Ihear (from other people) that you say. — TiyvwaKeiv in the signif. to determine} 
to resolve upon, takes only the infin. along with it. 

Obs. 4. The participles of verbs, onwhich a, nomin. is dependent, as fivai, KoXeXaOai, 
generally change this nomin. into the casus in which they are themselves ; 'Yfuv ^f 
ovdiv 'AOrjvaioig ov TrpsTvti, it does not become you who are Athenians : — 'ETropevovro 
dLo, Twv M.eXtvo(pa.y(t}v KaXovjxkvojv Qpq.Ku)V (on resolving this sentence Gp^/ce^ is the 
subject of KaXelaOaL). 

Obs. o. The constructions of the part, become more complicated, when the pro- 
position as an injin. is again dependent on a vei'b, so that the pai't. is attracted; 
E'lprirai avTolc cnravrav IvOdde ^ovXtvcrojxkvoiQ, they have been summoned to meet here 
to deliberate, Aristoph. Lys. 13., here the dat. is used, on account of avrolg, instead 
of the accus. before the inJin. diravT^i', but cnravTCJcn (SovXevaofievoi is to be ex- 
plained by Text 3. — Xenoph. Mem. 1, I, 9. (compare above § 142. Obs. 2.) "A rolg 
dvQpwTTOig 'idwKav oi Qsol fiaOoixn diaKpiveiv, what the gods permitted men to decide 
from their own knowledge. Here fxaQovcn does not belong directly to dvQp<ji)7roig, but 
to diaKp'iveiv : it is, however, in the dat., because of dvQpMiroig. 

Obs. 6. The participles are frequently combined with particles. Thus when the 
p)art. precedes the other verb, there is sometimes ovTOjg, tTTura, or £tra, inserted 
between the two for the sake of emphasis ; Demosth. Mid. 20. 'E^pjjv avrbv, to. ovra 
dvaXi(yKovra,i6(T7rep tyw, ovro) [xk d<paipHaQai riijv viktjv, by expending his own {fortune) 
like me, he thus (i. e. by this expenditure) must snatch the victory from me: — Xenoph. 
Hier. 7, 9."0Tav oi dvOpcoiroi evepyertlaOai Trpog Tivog yyrj'tTdfxevoi, tTreira tovtov 
dvd (TTOfxa 'ix^aiv k7raivovvTeg,when men,who think that they have received benefits from 
one, afterwards, (i. e. in consequence of this conviction,) continually {have him in their 
mouth praising,) load him with their praises : — Anab. 1, 2,25. Oh dvvdfxevoi tvpelv rag 
odovg, dra irXavdJiJievoi d-rr^Xovro, unable to find the road, they went astray and perished. 
See below § 149 about the particles 'inura and lira; about ixsra^v see § 150. — 
"0}Xh)g is similarly used, and is often in an immediate connexion with the part. Comp. 
Reisig. Enarr. ad Soph. CEd. Col. 659. Prepositions like juera ravTa, Sid tovto, Ik 
TOVTOV, occur in a similar manner in connexion with part. See Kruger de auth. et 
integr. Anab. Xen. p. 55. — "ATS,ola or olov are often construed with part, when they 
contain any reason based upon any actual occurrence, {objective reason,) ex. gr. oi Se, 
uTt ofJioOev SicjKovTsg, ypovv TroXXovg. But whenever any reason or cause is quoted 
as existing merely in the mind and idea of an individual, {subjective reason,) or when- 
ever the idea of mere appearance (quasi) is to be expressed, the particles uyg or 
{xxyiTip are put before the participles; ex.gr. Xsyovcriv rjudg we dXajXorag. irape- 
aKSvdi^ovTO (hg TToXenrjaovrtg. Comp. besides in § 145. Obs. 5. — Whenever the^ar^. 
convey the idea of limitation, the particles Kainep or kuI (poet. Trap end.) are added. 
Obs. 7. A relation of time properly is the basis of all construction with the parti- 
ciple. Whatever may be the connexion of the action of the particip>le with the 
other action, it is almost always conceived as co-existing, or anterior, or posterior, 

Dd2 



404 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

and stated accordingly in the requisite tevse. But there is frequently another view 
of the matter possible, than that with which we are familiar, and thus it happens 
that we often find in books the part, aor., where we expected the part. pres. and 
vice versa. For instance in Homei''s"St; ctVwr a)Tpvve [xsvog Kal Ovfxbv f/cdoTov, we 
expect the pres. Xsyu)v: for, whilst he is speaking thus, the commander by his 
speeches encourages his soldiers, but he must already have said something affecting, 
since they are affected. Hence we have also in Xenoph. 3fem. 3,6, 2. Toidda X'e^ag 
KaTS(Tx^v avTov. — The part. pres. may be used when both actions have a duration^ 
and are continually rejoeated ; Xenoph. 3fem. I, 2, 61. (speaking of Socrates,) 
BiXriovQ yap ttoimv tovq crcijyyLyvofisvovQ aTrkiviixTrfv. Here 7roir](Tag would I'efer 
to a thing which happened but once, but the meaning is, he {constantly, every time,) 
rendered those more happy who came to him, and then dismissed them. — The part. pres. 
is also used for several actions necessarily connected and almost co-existing toith the fol- 
lowing action, as to go, run, lead, bring ; O'Uad' iwv MvpfiiSovecraiv dva<Tae,Il, a. 179, 
go home and rule, arrj Se Omv, II. p. 707, he ran and placed himself, iyxoQ ttrrijae 
<p'ipix)v Trpbg Kiova. Od. a. 1 27, he carried the spear and placed it against the pillar, Kat 
jxe KaOi^ei dyojv, Plato Charm. 2, he leads and places me, Herod. 8, 118, Tovg de Trpoa- 
KvveovTag eKTrrjdseiv, because prostration is conceived as inseparable from leaving 
the king. Other instances are to be explained by a peculiar signification of the 
aorist, by Avhich it expresses the beginning of any action. Thus (TTparrjyriaag, (Saai- 
Xevcrag, dp^ag IttoUi means: as strategos, king, archon, &c. but literally : having- been 
made strategos, Icing, Sec. Comp. Kruger de auth. p. 8. — Lastly, it is not very unusual 
to add to an ao7\ apart, of the aor., containing an action which takes place at the 
same time with that expressed by the first aor. In this case the part, may be ex- 
plained by its being changed into the indie, of the same tense and by its being 
connected by means of Kai. See Herm. ad Vig. not. 224. and in the Obs. below on 
XavQaviiv. There are other deviations, which we leave to the individual obser- 
vation of the learner. 

Obs. 8. Sometimes the principal verb is construed in apart, which is made de- 
pendent on another vei-b, and thus supplies the place of the adverb. See Greg, Cor. 
in Att. § 36. Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 86. The following in particular are such col- 
lateral verbs : 

Tt)yx«i'£i^'j and with poets KvpsTv {to happen, come to pass) ; 'Qg dk ijXOov, 

ervx^v dTTiun', he just went away when I came. 
XavOdveiv, {to be concealed,) Tavra Tcoir^cfag iXaOev v7rtK(pvy<l)v, this done he 
escaped privately, or in reference to the subject itself, To <povka XavQdvu 
[ioaKojv, he unconsciously supports his murderer {he does not know that he is sup- 
porting) ; "EXaQs irtadiv, he fell unawares. According to a very common 
anomaly, the aor. of the part, is used merely because the verb itself is an aor.; 
thus we have also Xddt (iiwaag, live unperceived. 
(pQdvtiv, {to do any thing previously to another,) "E(pOr]v cKpeXcjv, I took it away 

shortly before (see also § 150). 
diaTiXilv, {to continue, persevere,) AiartXtX irapchp, he is continually there. It is 

the same with Sidyeiv and diayiyveGOai. 
XaipHv,{to be delighted,) Xaipovcnv eiraivovvreg, they gladly pi'aise {take pleasure 

in praising). 
o'lxoi^ai in a similar manner serves for circumlocutions, where the principal 
idea is then expressed by the part. ; ex. gr. (^x^"^^ (pevycjv, dinujv, he fled in 
great haste ; oixsrat OavdJv. Comp. a similar instance with the ijifin. and 
WsXu) in § 150. 
Obs. 9. About the part. 'ex(ov, {ex. gr. in ri Xriptlg £%wj>;) cpspojv, ri TraOojp and ri 
(laOojv, see § 150. For the cii-cumlocution with t'xfu' see ibid. 



SYNTAX. 405 

§ 145. — Casus Absoluti. 

1. In the instances hitherto enumerated, the part, was 
dependent on one of the nouns belonging to the principal verb, 
and was therefore construed in the same case as that noun. 
But if a new object is introduced as subject, it is construed 
in the same case with the part., which case is independent of 
the principal verb ; whence this construction is called casus 
absoluti. 

2. The casus, in which such words stand, commonly is the 
gen., and these 

genitivi absoluti 
are the same as what are called in Latin ablativi consequentice. 
Their original signif. refers to time, the gen. denoting the time 
according to § 132, 6, 4., and just as wKrhq means by night, so 
does 'E/xov KaQiv^ovrog ravra lyivero, this happened ivhen I slept 
[at the time when I lu as sleeping) : — Ilavrwy ovv aiatTrwvTujv 
CdTTs roiaSe : — Mera ravra KVfiaivovrog 7]^r] rov Yl^XoTrovvricnaKOV 
TToX^fiov tireKTE rov ^rifj.ov, K^pKvpaioig airocrrdXai jdoriOeiav. When 
this time is denoted by an historical person, the gen. often is at- 
tended by the prep. £7rt, ea^. gr. 'Etti Kvpov jdacnXevovrog, [Cyro 
regnante,) in the reign of Cyrus. Hence lirl generally is con- 
sidered as omitted, when the question is oi time (see Obs. 2). 

3. But this construction serves also for any other connexion 
by means of when, as, because, whilst, &c. For instance, 

^iTriKUfiivwv 0£ rCjv ttoXejuiwv ry iroXei, Xi^og i^nrero rCjv 'Pw^atwy, 
when the enemy assailed the city, famine attacked the Romans ; 
TeOvrjKorog rov j5a<ji\i(i)g rw vlco avrov hvirv\e, the king being dead, 
{as the king ivas dead,) he addressed himself to his son ; 9tou 
^I'^ovrog, ov^lv laxv^i x^ovoc, when a god grants (a favour), envy 
is powerless; Tovrwv ovrwg Ix^^'^^^j [5i\riov tarai irepijuiveiv, 
things being so, {as thifigs are, in these circumstances^ it will be 
best to wait. 

4. When the noun is sufficiently obvious from what was 
stated before, the part, may be construed alone in the gen. ; 
Ylagovra rov r}y£ju6va ydovvro, airovrog §£ rjaiXyaivov, where the 
aurou belonging to airovrog is omitted, 'but when he ivas absent.' 
— Any verb used impersonally, i. e. ivithout its subject being com- 
pressed, is construed in this connexion with a. participle in casu 
absoluto. See Obs. 6 and 7. 

5. Dativi absoluti are used, partly to denote tinie, Xenoph. 



406 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Hell. 3j 3, 18. — Il^QuovTi rt^ Iviavn^ iraXiv (paivovai (l)povpav £7rt 
rrjv'^llXiv, the year drawing to its close, they again called out part 
of the army against Elis ; partly in locutions derived from the 
dativus instrumenti, as, for instance, Xenoph. Ages. 1. "Ert fcat 
vvv Tolg TTpoyovoig bvofiatiofiivoig aTTO/JLvrjinovsveTai oiroaTog a^^ 
'YiQaKk^ovQ kyivero, naming his forefathers. 

6. For the datives in jSouXo/ilv^j), &c. with the verb elvat see 
§ 133. Obs. 4. 

Obs. 1. Strictly speaking, there are no casus absoluti but the nomin. absoluti ; for, 
as the nomin. can only be the subject or predicate with respect to the rer6, it follows 
that, when such nomin. are neither subject nor predicate to the verb, close to which 
they are, they must stand alone {absolute) for themselves. But this can happen 
barely through an interruption of the chain of thought, and all nomin. absoluti are, 
therefoi-e, more or less belonging to the anacolutlions (see § 151, II). The practice 
in this respect is not steady, and isolated instances are easily explained, Xenoph. 
Hell. 2, 3, 54. 'l^Ktivoi de (oi evdsKa) tiaaXOovTeg avv rolg vTrrjpkraig, rjyovfxsvov 
avrCjv ^arvpov, el-nsv 6 Kpiriag (where this construction is preferred on account 
of the gen. which immediately follow). Such constructions, bearing the stamp of 
unconstraint and energy, impart a peculiar charm to poetry, as in Homer, 6 5* 
ayXair^tpi 7re7roi9d)g, 'Pifx^a 'i yovva (pspei fXi.Ta t r]Baa Kal vofibv 'iTnrcjv. 

Obs. 2. The three other cases never can be casus absoluti in this sense ; in the 
instances quoted above, they rather are only remote objects and relations of the 
verb to which they are annexed. We have seen above, § 130, that the oblique 
cases may in some combinations stand instead of prepositions with the case of the 
prep.; not that such a prep, is omitted, but the termination of the casus acts the 
part of a, prep.; vvKTog, yfispag. Now such gen. have the same relation in sentences, 
like Kvpov ^aaikivovrog, s[xov -napovTog. And just as other forms denoting time 
were extended to express causal relations and others, these gen. were employed for 
any relation, which is expressed in English by as, when, whilst, &c. which properly 
are also adverbs of time. Hence it was very natural to add in some particular 
instances, when the relation of time was to be more strongly stated, ihe prep, ini: 
'Etti Kvpov (3a(Xi\evovTog. 

Obs. 3. But the common character of all these constructions is that the participle 
is not a modification of the noun, but an essential constituent of the thought, and 
that the verb in this shape forms with its subject a complete proposition, which we 
express by the abstract noun of the verb, ' in the reign of Cyrus,' — ' in my /presence.' 
— The case is the same with the datives, which, though they should not be called 
casus absoluti, yet agi'ee in this essential respect with these gen. &c.: Tovro lari 
cot r)dofxkv(i}, does not mean that serves you, who are rejoiced, or wlien you are re- 
joiced, but that serves to rejoice, delight you; and TrepCiovri Iviavri^, not this happened 
in the year, when it ended, but at the end of the year. 

Obs. 4. An additional modification or determination is sometimes expressed by 
absolute accus. or absolute nomin. Herod. 2, 41. Tovg (3ovg QaTrrovai, ra Kspara vrrep- 
sxovTa, {so that the horns project,) 133, "Iva ot (to him) dvwdeKa trea avrl 'i^ ersojv 
ysvTjTai, ai vvKTsg t'lfiepai 7roievixtvai{the nights being converted into days). On com- 
paring such instances, we find that there is here properly a partial apposition; 
for r'lfx'spai is in the nomin. on account of ysvr]rai, and Kkpara is to be considered as 
accus. because of Bcnrrovai. 

Obs. 5. When a motive is presumed in another individual's mind, which influ- 
ences him, the usual construction is the conjunction otg, {since,) or wa-7r£p, {as if,) and 



SYNTAX. 407 

absolute accus. or absolute gen. To catch the right meaning of this short pro- 
position, we must always insert a sentence in the translation ; 'E(r^al•7ra, wc TravraQ 
dto-ag, or Trdvnov eidorwv, he icas silent since {he thought) all kneic, &c.; Ot Trarepig 
elpyovai rovg viug dirb tu>v Trovrjpiov avOpujTTujv, ojg ttjv tovtujv b[xi\iav ^laXvaiv 
ovcrav dpsrtig, parents keep their children from wicked men, since (they are convinced) 
intercourse with them is destructive of virtue ; Tlato Phced. 'ETriKeXevti ^ovffiKi^v kouTv, 
wg <p(Xo(7o^iag iieyia-r]g ovaijg ixovcTiKtjg: — Xen. 3Ien. 2, 3, 3. Tu)v dh\(pu)v 
dfieXoijcnv, iocr—tp Ik tovtojv ov ■yiyvojj.spovc ^iXovc, as if no friends were to be made 
of them. 

Obs. 6. Any real impersoncd verb, i. e. of those which have only a mysterious suh- 
ject, (§ 129, 9, 10.) becomes, as casus absolutus, the gen. sing. of the paii.; laX-'iZovTog, 
as (the trnm-peteT) sounded the trumpjet^vovrog ttoXXc^), (fromi'et TroXXto, viz. on[3p(i),) 
as it rained much, Xenoph. 

06s. 7- Those impersonal verbs, or impersoncd constructions, Mhere the proposition 
dependent on such a terb (commonly an infin. or a sentence with otl, and the Hke,) 
is properly the actual subject of the verb, (§ 129, 11.) are treated as casus absoluti 
in two different ways : — 

1.) When it is a mere relation of time, it is the ^en. This happens chiefly 
with pass, terbs, denoting to say, announce, declare, and then in the gen. pi., 
(where riovce of Tade may be mentally supplied;) 'O UepiKXiig (i>x^~o ^^i- 
Kavvov,6<TaYysX9svTu}v otl ^oiviaaai vrjeg sTrnrXeovcnv, as it had been announced, 
{e(TnYysXen,) Thuc. 1, 116. 

2.) In any other combination we have the accus. neut., 'Eip-qp.kvov avroXg 
Trapelvai, ovx rjnovai, they do not come, though they have been told (aprjrat) to be 
present, and this is the case with all terbs commonly called impersonal; Aid tL 
fieveig, t^bv d—isvai; why do you stay ichen you are at libei'ty (it is allowed to 
you) fo gol {e^eartv,) aTreifii ttoXiv, £K£i'r^ Sokovv, {yiz. kfjis dinkvai,) I shall 
go back, because it seems good to him (doKtl). Plato Phced. 28. Alg icai rplg rd 
avrd s1pr]Kev,ojg ov Tidvv ev7ropu>v — rj "icrcjg ovdev avT(^ jxk\ov tqv toiovtov. 
Hence it happens that the part, tv^ov (from t-vxiv, it happened,) is used as 
adverb, properly since it so happened, by chance, and consequently also perhaps. 
Even the adj. Svva-bv (with the part, ov omitted) is used thus, Plato Rep. 7. 
p. 519, d. TLoiTjaoiJisv ^apov Kyv, dwarbv avrolg diieivov (viz. Zyv), we icill 
contrive that they shall live icorse, while they might have lived better. Herm. ad 
Viger. n. 214. 

§ 146.— 0/2^7^6 Particles. 

1. Adverbs partly have, like the adj. which they resemble, 
the noun, to which they refer in a particular case^ 'A^twc 17/uwv 
TToXmi^Goinv [ive ivill carry on the war in a manner worthy of 
ourselves) . They do the same in the compar. and superl. ; 
^laXiGTa iravTOJv, most of all ; 01 TrtvriTeg twv ev^aiidovtov fxaWov 
tvvavraL eaOieiv re koX KaOevSsiv, {better than the rich,) see § 
132, 5, 4. 

2. Prepositions properly are adv. having a constant reference 
to a noun, (while with adverbs this is only partially the case^) 
and merely denoting a certain relation without any other 
power or energy. Thus we have particles, which sometimes are 
mere adverbs, and sometimes real prepositions. For instance. 



408 A GREEK GRAMMAR. ♦ 

o^ou and ajua both signify together as adverbs; but they 
frequently are construed with the dative, (hke the kindred 
prep, avv,) and they then, ^^prep., signify together loith. Others, 
and especially the adverbs of time and place, govern the geyi. ; 
eyyvg, near, iyyvg tivoq, close by one ; xu^giQ, apart, separately, 
XioQiQ TivoQ, concept one ; ^I'x*^? doubly, apart, ^ixa tivoq, apart 
from, i. e. without ; evOv, straight-forward, evOv nvog, in the way 
to meet one, Lat. obviam, (see § 13 7, 1.) &c. There is a great 
difference between the particle wc, 1.) when adverb and con- 
junction signifying that, as, &c. of which see § 149; and 2.) 
when a prep, signifying to in answer to the question whither ? 
but referring constantly to persons ^, ElarjXOev djg kfil, he came 
in to me, avrjxOrjcrav tjg tov fiaaiXia, they went (journeyed) to the 
king. 

3. There are adverbs referring to verbs, and whole proposi- 
tions, which serve to connect two sentences, especially the 
relative ; lia^icjojiaL ottots KEAsuo-aic? I shall be there, whenever you 
bid me. This is the origin of conjunctions ; for the construc- 
tion of which with regard to the diiferent moods of the verb, 
see § 139. 

Obs. 1. "Axpi and /i£%pi properly signify at once, at a continuance, loithout interrup- 
tion ; in connexion with a verb, ' as far as, until,'' in connexion with a gen. ^ con- 
tinually up to,^ or simply ' until.'' — liXrjv means except, and may be connected with a 
proposition, ttXtjv ei, except if; but it also takes the gen. : liXrjv irdw oXiyoJv, with 
the exception of very few. 

Obs. 2. Strictly speaking, those particles only, which commonly are used alone, 
and without any reference, should be called adverbs ; those, which usually are con- 
strued with a particular case of the noun, prepositions ; and those, which generally 
connect whole propositions, conjunctions. Thus, for instance, dvtv and artp, without, 
IvwTriov, before, (in later authors,) and xaptv, on account of, (the latter of which, like 
the Latin gratia, almost always comes after the gen., as well as eviKa,) and others, 
are xe2i\ prepositions governing the gen. It is ti'ue that x^P'-'^ properly is a sulst.- as 
well as diKTjv, in the manner of, Lat. * instqr ' {Siktjv TroraixoJv, and the like); such 
words are not adverbial subst., but rather subst. which are become prep. Those 
mentioned above never occur without the case of a 7iou7i, and therefore are still more 
justly called prepositions, than some of the single words thus named, which some- 
times are employed adverbially without governing any case (§ 147. Obs. 8). 

4. Some adverbs serve at the same time as adj. : I\\r\GLov 

' Modern critics make it evident that, whenever passages occur in good writers, 
in which ojq does not refer to persons, they are probably corrupt ; eig is the correct 
reading in such instances. The particle wg, however, is not one of the old prep. 
strictly so called, which are stated in the following Section ; it does not make any 
compound ve)'b : see § 115, 2. 

2 Hence poets also say £/i»}v, <t>}v x^P''-''^} (/^^ "^2^ *^^^j 2/^^^^ sake,) instead of ejxov, 
(jov xapiV' 



I 



SYNTAX. 409 

earl, atya Ian, he is near, he is silent (see § 129. Obs, 7). That 
paiiicles by being construed with the article become nouns^ 
has been noticed above, § 125, 6, 7. 

§ ]47. — Of the Prepositions. 

1. Besides those mentioned in the preceding Section, the 
following are the old prep, expressive of locality in general, 
with their cases : 

avTi, ano, It, (ffc,) irpo govern the gen. 
Iv, ai)v, the dat. 
ava, £(c ^ the accus. 
^la, Kara, virlp, the gen. and accus. 

OjU^i, £7rt, iiEra, Trapu, irepX, irpog., virby the ge7i. dative and 
accus. 

2. Those, which govern different cases, generally have the 
accus. to the question whither f and the dat. to the question 
ivhere ? The gen. suits most significations, but chiefly conveys 
the idea of a removal {from off, out) . 

Obs, 1. The simplest and easiest of the above prepositions, in point of signif. 
are 

arch, from, of, tC, out offrom^ 

tig, in, into, to the question ichither, 

Iv, in, to the question where, 

TTpb, before, avv, with, 

for though they have many collateral meanings, these, with the exception of a 
few peculiarities, are easily deduced from the radical signif. : as when tg denotes 
a cause, and may be rendered because of, Ik tovtov, on that account, or when it 
merely denotes a succession of time, Nvv ysXoJfisv Ik tCjv TrgoaBiv daKpvojv: again 
when tig, like the Latin in, denotes towards, against, or when it simply means with 
respect to, Twv dg TrokiyLov kiriarrimov iariv : lastly, when Trpo is the Latin pro, for, 
(but only in the sense oi protection ov adtantage,) AiaKivdvvevtiv 7rp6 roij jSacnXiojg. 
Cyrop. 4, 5, 44. Ovk apKscrw Trpdrrojv 7rp6 Vjuwv, o, ri av Ssy, I shcdl not be able to 
do ichat is needful for you,— for your adtantage. Compare Trpovpyov, § 115. Obs. 4. 
See belovv Obs. 5. very particular signif. of elg. 

Obs. 2. The signif. of the following prepositions must be more particularly 
remembered: — 

dva is originally up, (compare dvii), and the compounds,) and in this sense it is 
also construed with the dative by the poets {11. a. 15. Od. X. 128). But the most 
usual signif. in prose is in, on, through, both in point of time and place ; 'Avd Trdcrav 
TTjv yfjv, all over the country; 'H 0J7/i7j rjXOtv dvd ttjv Tr6\iv,the report spread 
through the city ; Oi avd to TTsdiov, those in the open fields; 'Avd Trdcrav rrjv riiJispav, 
the whole day through. But when there is no ai'ticle, and Trdg consequently is tant- 
amount to 'iicaarog, (§ 127, 6-) it refers to a number of days, years, &c.: dvd rcdaav 
T)iJ.epav, daily, every day ; Cyrop. 1, 2, 8. dvd rrdv irog, every year, Herod. 5, 114. 
dvTi, as a single prep., has lost its original meaning of towards, against, (see 

^ See about the pj-ep. (bg, § 1 46, 2. 



410 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 10. about compounds,) and most commonly signifies instead of, for , in the sense 
of exchanging, bartering, buying, valuing, &e. 

did Tov, through, in point of space and of ways and means; — did rbv, on account 
of, Aid AaKsdaiixoviovQ icpvyov, they were driven into exile on account of the Lacedas- 
vionians ; Aid at i]\9ov, I came for your sake ; but also through as a cause, Aid tovq 
Oiovg IV TTpdrru), through the gods I am doing well, 1 am well off. 

fxerd TOV, after, Lat. post; — nerd tov, with ; — fiSTd t(^, only with poets among, 
Lat. inter. 

dfi<pi and Trtpi roi/, about, to both questions «;/iere and whither, for the dat. to the 
question tf/tere is rather uncommon. Hence they denote any approximation ; 'A/z0i 
Td opt] lyevsTO, he was about the mountain ; and dfxipi or Trspi ti or Tivd f %£ iv or elvai 
mean to belong to something, to be busy about something, &c. (§ 150, exetv) : ■ — Trspi r^ 
conveys the idea of caj-e, and is used with the verbs to fear, contend, to be easy, &c.: 
— dn^l and irtpi tov mean of,lj?it. de, to talk about something ; further 0o/3sT(T0aj, 
(pikoviiKitv TTspi Tivog, and the like. But dix(pi is less frequently used in this sense 
than TTspi. 

virep TOV, over, beyond, Lat. supra, ultra : — vTrep tov, over, above. Hence the 
latter also conveys the idea of for, chiefly in the sense of protection, defence, or care, 
&c. TrpaTTsiv, diriiv vwep tov koivov, to act, speak for the public welfare ; aTroOavelv 
vTTsp TOV (piXov, to die for one's friend. 

Obs. 3. That the gen. preferably conveys the idea of proceding from is particu- 
larly evident from these three prep, itapd, irpoq, vrro. — With the. accus. and dat.Xhey 
retain their principal signif., but with the gen. they are mostly to be rendered of or 
from. The following particulars must be remembered about them, viz. 

TTapd TOV, to, towards ; but to the question where, near, close by. It is also the 
Latin prceter, besid.es ; "Ex^iv o\pov wapd tov dpTov, to have vegetables besides bread; 
'E7r6v6i TTapd tovq d\\ovQ,he p)erformed more labour than the others ; TavTaiaTi Trapd 
TOVQ TU)v 6eu)v 9s(Tfiovc, that is against the divine laws, against the order of things esta- 
blished by the gods ; Tiapd So^av, beyond expectation (Lat. prceter opinionem) : — 
Ilapd T(^ is merely wear ; — Trapd tov is from with the verbs Ho come,bring, receive, 
learn,' &c. and sometimes with the pass. (§ 134, 3.) 

TTpoQ, to, near, has preferably the accus. to the question tchither, and the dat. to 
the question where: TrpoQ tov is towards in both senses ; — TrpoQ Tov,from, by, with the 
verbs 'to hear, to be praised or blamed,' and frequently with the pass. (§ 134, 3.) — 
It is also used in the form of asseverations ; IXpoe twv Oeiov, by the gods ! 

VTTO TOV, under (with motion) ; — vtto tc^, close under ; — vtto tov, from, under, 
by, most commonly with thepass. (§ 134, 2.) but likewise with act. having a pass, sig- 
nif., as Trdcrxeiv itself, and ex. gr. Qaviiv vtto tivoq, to meet one's death byone;—fia6t'iv 
vtt' dvdyKrjQ, to be taught by necessity ; Demosth. Oierson. 94. "Av d' vtto tojv TTve.vp.d- 
Twv [XT] Swdj/xeOa, prevented by the winds. Even actions can thus assume a pass. 
form; 'ETroiJjcrg tovto vtto S'sovq, he did it out of fear ; — vtt' dpeTrjg TTpaTTSiv ti, 
Herod, 8, 1. or if the pass, state of the object is uppermost in the mind, Soph. 
Philoct. Ill 7- ovds ye SoXoq ea-^ vtto xeipoQ efxaQ (the same with avye eax'^^UQ 
doXii)) — And even with the gen. vtto sometimes retains its pi'incipal signif. under, 
vTrb TToSojv, Plato Protag. 32L 

Qbs. 4. The prep. Itti and Kard require the most careful attention: 

£7rt chiefly signifies on, to the question where ? commonly with the gen., some- 
times also with the dat., e(p' "ittttov 6xti<yQai, and, TLvpoQ e.(f 'iTnT(^ eTTopevero: to 
the question whither, with the accus. 'Eiri Xo^ov Tivd KaTa<pevyei, he flies on a hill. 
But at the same time its signif, becomes more general, and it may be used for near, 
into, and to the question whither, for to, towards, whenever the context suggests 
this meaning; and with the accus. in particular it denotes the direction to, and 
towards. Instances will occur to the learner in his readings. We will only observe 



SYNTAX. 411 

that the gen. is also used to the question whither in the sense of to : — 'ETropswovro 
£7rt Sap^EOJv : — 'Avf]yovTo {they sailed) iTci rrjg Xiov : — 'ATTSTrXtvcnv sir' oIkov : — 
tTTi T(^ frequently fixes the time by some contemporary circumstance, and more espe- 
cially by a contemporary person ; — k(f r)fiCJv, in our time, (compare above § 145, 2.) 
ETTt Tuiv rjfxsrkpojv irgoyoviov : — kiri t(^, in point of situation, denotes close by ; IttI 
ry Td(j)p(^, on the brink of the grave ; Hvgyovg Itti T(p Trorajuy^ oiico8o[XH. Like TrpoQ 
it denotes to, in addition to ; 'Etti ivaai tovtoiq TrXrjydg Ivstslvs fiot. Very often it 
means purpose, condition ; 7rapaaKi.vdZ,ia9ai iiti rivi, to prepare for something ; 'Ett' 
iiraivii) iravra ttovov vTreSuero : — 'Etti tovtoiq tiprjvrjv l.Troir](ravTo, on those con- 
ditions they made peace (compare below § 150. i<p' (f). Lastly, eTvi r^ expresses 
power in such phrases as l(p' rifiiv e<XTi, it rests with us. See examples § 129, 1. 
§ 142, 3. The accus. too often denotes purpose, but mostly with this difference, 
eXOelv £7ri tovti^, to effect it, tXQelv IttI tovto, to fetch it. 

Kara. The principal meaning of this pi-ep., as appears from the comparison 
of KUToj and its compounds, is motion from above downwards, with the gen. down 
from; Kara tCjv Trerpuiv p'ntTtiv Tivd, to throw one down from the rocks; "RXXovto 
Kara tov tsixovq. It is also under in connexions like a(paviZ,iaQai Kara Trig 
OaXdcraijQ, (to sink under,) Herod. 7> 6. Kara tov, however, occurs more fre- 
quently in the signif. of against, chiefly with the verbs ' to speak, think,' and the 
like ; tiTrtiv to dXijOeg kutu tivoq, to speak the truth against one, give true evidence. 
It is less rarely used in the sense of praising, "'ETvaivog Kara tov ovov, Plato 
Phoedr. 260. 

Kara tov denotes any locality in general, when the particulars of the situation 
are not to be, or cannot be, attended to, or when they are sufficiently known ; Kara 
yijv Kai Kara OdXaTTav, by land and by sea; oi Kara rfjv ' Kaiav vtto jSacnXtl 
ovreg, those w'ho are in Asia under the king. Hence, in general, time, place, and cir- 
cumstances, which are obvious, are denoted by Kara, OUovai Kara KOJjxag, they dwell 
in villages, Lat. vicatim ; 'EaKtivovv /cara rd^eig, they were encamped in battle-array ; 
hence Kara Svo, two by tico ; TavTa fisv kykvero Kara tijv voaov, this happened 
during the illness ; Kara ravTTjv Trjv dia^opdv 6vt(ov AaKedaiixovio)v Trpbg 'A9r}- 
vaiovg, during the disp)ute of the Lacedcemonians with the Athenians; At Kara to 
awjia rjSoval, the pleasures of the body ; Kara Trdvra TiTgvx^vTai, they are in every 
respect worn out, and many other relations of this kind. Kara frequently is the 
Latin ^secundum,' according to, Kara tovtov tov Xoyov dfxuvov kaTiv (bde, accord- 
ing to this statement it is better thus ; Kara IlXdrojva, according to Plato, i. e. as Plato 
says: ILaTa T-qv KdQerov, perpendicularly ; Hoihaix) Kara rd tov (SacnXsiog ypajLt- 
fiara, I shall act according to the king's letter ; Akofxai avTOv Kara Ttdvra Tpoirov, 
I want him every way, need his assistance in any way. 

Obs. 5. The prei?. eig referring to persons signifies to, but always meaning the 
person's dicelling, Horn, tig 'Aya/xsuvova, to Agamemnon, to his tent ; KaXsei ts jxiv 
eig £ £/caoToc, every one invites him to his house ; Lysias, ElcrsXOujv tig tov Trarepa 
TOV kfiov, coming to my father's house. Eig with the elliptical gen. (§ 132. Obs. 9.) 
means more generally, into the house of Alciblades, &c. 

Obs. 6. The prep, kv is also used by the Dorians instead of i'lg, Avith the 
accus. (Find. Pyth. 2, 21. 5, 50. See Greg. Cor. Dor. 159, with the iV^o^^s.)— See 
about dirb employed seemingly for kv, § 151. I. 8. 

06s. T. We shall see below, § 151. Ill, 1, 6, that prep, are sometimes separated 
from their cases by an intercalation. Sometimes the object of a, prep, seems to be 
wanting, when a reference has taken its place ; Soph. Philoct. 469. Tvpog TraTpbg, 
Trpbg d tI aoi Icttiv (piXov, where t'i ti (according to § 149. el,) is used for on, and 
the requisite gen. to Trpbg (Travrbg) is wanting, by the father, (/ implore thee,) by — 
if any thing be dear to thee, i. e. by all which is dear to thee. 

Obs. 8. And sometimes the object is not expressed, because it would be repeating 



412 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

what had gone before ; most languages then make an adverb of the prep, {loherein, 
therein, &c.) and if the prep, itself is used, it is only adverbially. In prose this is 
done in Greek only with the prep. Trpbg, ex. gr. Kal Trpbg, Trpbg de, and besides, &e., 
and by the lonians and later writers also with [lerd : jxera Ss, but aftenoards. But 
poets have also irapa, along icith it, kv, within, and the like, and the prep. Trepi or 
TTspi, frequently is with the Epics an adverb: very much, very (§ 117- Obs. 3). 

Obs. 9. All compounds with prep, originated in this manner. They all consist 
of a radical word with a j^rep. taken adverbially : diajSaivai, I pass through, cross 
over, and the like, § 121, 2. The meaning of all such compounds is easily dis- 
covered from the signif. of the prep. We will only remark that the compounds with 
dvTi chiefly convey the idea of opposition, against; avTiTdTTHv,to oppose, dvri- 
\kynv, to contradict : — those with dvd mean up, and those with Kara, down ; dva~ 
(SaiPiii', icarafSaiveiv, to go upj, down. Of the collateral signif. of such compounds, 
which are not clearly obvious through the meaning of the prep., we must parti- 
cularly notice 

d}x<pi, when it means on both sides; dn<pij3o\og, ambiguous, equivocal ; 

dvd, frequently means back again; dvairXdv, to sail back; 

did, conveys the idea of the Lat. ' dis,' separation, taking apart or aside ; Sia- 

(XTTav, to pull asunder, Sia^fvyvvvai, Lat. ' disjungere/ to disjoin, separate; 
kv, frequently answers the question whither ; eyx^^v, to pour into ; 
Kara, most commonly conveys the idea oi accomplishing ; KaraTrgdrTHv, Lat. 
^ perjlcere^ to accomplish ; (TTps^eiv,to tui'n; KaraaTphtpHv, to finish ; TrifiTtpd- 
vai,to burn; KaraTrifjiirpdvai, to consume by fire. Hence the idea of ruin, 
destruction; KaraKV^tveiv ttjv ovaiav, to lose one's fortune at dice. In both 
it corresponds to the Latin per. Germ. ver. 
[isra, denotes transposition, change, Lat. trans ; fieTafSilSdZuv, to transfer, to 

remove ; ixsravotXv, to change one's mind ; 
Trapd, sometimes signifies, like the Lat. prceter, the idea of missing, doing amiss, 
in some compounds, as 7rapa(3aivtiv Toiig voiiovg, to transgress the laws : irap- 
opq.v, to see wrong, overlook: TrapdcrTrovdog, who violates a treaty {(jirovdai). 
Obs. 10. It is because pj-ep. are properly adverbs in compound words, that poets 
frequently separate the jor^jo. from their vei-bs by putting other words between, 
which is called a tmesis, did re prj^aaOai eirdX^eig, for kuI diapprj^aaOai, and even 
in the Ionic prose, especially by ibv instead of ovv, Herod. 2, 39. 'Air' ihv eSovro, 
for dirsdovTo ovv. Homer, in particular, parts the prep, so completely from its 
verb, and lets it follow after, that the prep, sometimes comes before a case or noun 
on Avhich it has no influence ; TToXef-iov -rrtpl rovde (pvyovreg, for Trspi^vyovreg 
Tovds Tov TToXf/iov : — £K Ovfiov eXsffOai, for k^eXsaOai Qviiov : — /card ^ovg i/tte- 
piovog 'HeXioio "HaOiov : — svapi^ov dit Ivrta, (more coi'rectly aTro, see § 117. 
Obs. 3.) for diTivapiZov 'ivrta, and the like. The reading of Homer becomes less 
difficult by assuming that he has no compound verbs, only simple ones, with ad- 
verbial prep, more or less distant from the verb. Hence the Ionic prose, in the 
moving i-epetition, which we shall state below in § 150, under iilv, merely repeats 
i\\e prep, instead of the compound verb, Herod. 3, 126. 'O Si /card fxiv Iktuvs. 
MiTpo^drta — /card Si rbv Mirpo/3a'r£w Tralda. Even in the Attic prose the inter- 
calation of the limiting r/, {somewhat, in some degree,) coming after the prep, vrrb, 
(Lat. SUB, a little,) which limits or diminishes the signif. of adj., belongs hither ; 
viro Ti d(Te[3fg, somewhat irreligious, vtto ti dronov, and the like. Heind. ad Plat. 
Phcedr. 43. 

Obs. 11. But even in common prose there are some prep., which must be con- 
sidered as separate and distinct, though in compounds. This is particularly the 
case with irpbg and avv. Any verb, whether a compound or not, may receive the 
addition of either of these prep, merely to show that the thing happened in addition 



SYNTAX. 413 

to something, {irpbg,) or in connexion with some one else, {avv tivi,) (TvarpaTevofxai 
aoi, I go to tear along with you ; 'S,vvt^aipei avTolg ^iWaaiav , helps them to conquer 
Sellasia (Xeiiopli. Hell. 7, 4, 12). 'A\\d Kai TrpoaSie^aXs ixe, but he has slandered 
me into the bargain. Other pirp. are less frequently used in this way; sfifxtXeTav, 
kyyvfxvdZeaOai, to exercise or practise, Plato Phcedr. 5. 'O <l?iidiaQ eipydaaro rtjv 
' AQyjvav tvepyoXa^Hv fcat kveTriopKelv AnixoaO'svei, Phidias made his Minerva for 
Demosthenes to benefit by her, and to commit perjury in her name (iEsch. c. Ctes.). 
Thus aTTOTToXEjustv, a compound, which perhaps occurs no where else, means in 
Plato {Phcedr. 260.) in reference to a horse, to fight on horsebach, i. e. down from the 
horse, being seated on it ; drroZyv, to live on (see below, § 150. o(tov). And Trpo- 
avapTid^eiv, Demosth. 3Iid. 35. Trpoo^eiXeiv, irpoaSiKe'ip, ibid. 23. All other com- 
pounds with pi^ep. or other words were regulated by practice, or introduced when 
a compound idea was particularly called for. 

Obs. 12. And not only in the above-mentioned compound expressions, but also 
frequently in others, the prejy. governs, under certain combinations, its own proper 
casus, though compounded ; evBlvai rivi, to be in or within something ; d<p((7rdvai 
TivoQ, to be separated or disjoined from something; aTreTn'jdrjaav "Eojicpdrovg, they 
deserted Socrates, and the hke ; — whilst in the higher styles of writing, the prep, is 
repeated again before the case or noun. This occurs frequently in Homei', and 
confirms what we observed before, that each compound verb in Homer must be 
considered as separated, so that the prej:). sometimes is merely an adverb, which it 
properly is, as Ave have seen above, and sometimes a real prep., II. ip. 121. eicdsov 
tjfjiiSvojv, they fastened (the icood), so that it hung dozen from the mules. 

Obs. 13. That the Gi-eek prep., on changing their accents, are sometimes placed 
after their case or noun in the anastrophe, and sometimes used instead of com- 
pounds with fij^at, has been already remarked above, §117,3. To this must be 
added the inversion of monosyllabic j)r^p., as i^, § 13, 4. 'ApTSf-udi ^vv, Horn. 

§ 148. — 0/ the Negative Particles. 

1. There are in Greek two simple negative particles, ovk and 
jU77, with which all other more decided negations are com- 
pounded. Any proposition, in which one or more of these 
negations occur, negatives generally in the same manner as if 
the simple negative particle was used alone. Hence whatever 
is observed about ovk applies alike to ovdh, ovSelg, ovEajni^Q, &c. 
and it is the same with fxri, lu-nddg, &c. 

2. There is, however, a great difference in the use of ovk and 
fXTj, and of their respective compounds, which requires an atten- 
tive study, and of which we can only give the general basis \ 

^ Compare Hermann's view of this distinction, which he has ingeniously deve- 
loped, ad Viger. n. 267- He states it as a general principle that ovk always denies 
the thing, and jxij only the representation, which is made of it, or that oii denies 
objectively, and ju?) subjectively. 1 readily acknowledge that this theory may com- 
prise the greatest number of instances where these negative jjarticles are employed, 
and that nothing can be more useful or moi'e calculated to sharpen the intellect in 
grammatical investigations than soberly to pursue such a philosophical principle, 
and even to endeavour to find it confirmed. But, at the same time, I must confess 
that I have not yet succeeded in bending every occurring instance so completely to 
this rule, as to i^ender it impossible not to bend others, which do not occui*, equally 
to it. A comparison with my statements will show that I have made use of 



414 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

a, Oi^K is a straightforward and absolute negation, which 
denies directly ; ouk iBiXio, ov (piXu), I will not, I do not 
love ; ovK ajaOov eciTiv, ovdelg Trapr]v, &c. In any inde- 
pendent proposition, in which there is something directly 
denied, firi, jiridsig, never can be used. — Yet a proposition 
with ov may also be uncertain, Ovk av (^ovXoijurjv, I 
should not like ; or interrogative, Tl yap ov irap^aTi ; 
w?iy then is he not here ? 

b. M?7 is altogether a mere dependent negative. Hence 
it is used in all propositions which state a negation not 
as a fact, but as something dependent on the conception 
or representation of any subject. Thus it is used in 
negative conditions and suppositions ; Oh Xryipofiai, u jurj 

(TV KeX£V£L(;1 El TL tCoV TOTg VVV jLLrj a^l6)(^pi:(t)V ^o/ctt Eivai, 

ItJfxev, if any of these objects should now appear insignifi- 
cant, we will let it alone. Thus fxrj is always joined with 
el, if, kav, rjv, orav, sTrtiSav, eojg av, &c. because all these 
speak of a thing not as a matter of fact, but as a sup- 
position ; and it is joined with ore, oirora, &c. whenever 
they are in a similar predicament. But £7ra, eirEtdri, {as, 
after,) take ov, because they always refer to facts, //. 0. 
95. M{] fie KTaiv, Ittu. ou;^ bfioyaarpiog "E/cro^ooc £tjut^ 

Hermann's views. To devise a better basis was not in my power, yet I did not 
wish to force into it what in my opinion is not susceptible of admission. My col- 
lateral remarks may be studied with those of Hermann, or be thrown into the shade. 
^ We meet with passajijes in which ii is construed with ov. I am not inclined to 
lay any stress on a few Epic passages like II. o. 1 62. Od. (5. 274, because I think 
them sufficiently accounted for by the observation, that the strict rules of grammar 
were not completely settled at the time when those passages were written. The 
case is widely different with regard to examples from the Attics. Hermann (ad 
Viger. n. 309, p. 890; and ad Eur ip. Med. p. 344,361.) explains the latter by 
observing that ovk is not used by itself, but forms a compound or collective idea with 
the word which follows. I admit this explanation in passages like Soph. Ajac. 
1131. El TovQ Oavovrag ovk iq,Q Qclttthv Vapwv, forbiddest, Lysias in Agorat. 135. 
El nlv ov TToXXot riaav, KaO' sKaarov av irepl avrCjv T^KOvere, if there were few. 
Hither belongs also the ovk sTvai in the comico-philosophic passage of Athen. 3. 
p. 99. But I think this explanation admissible only in expressions where the 
negation is, according to a long standing usage, employed, as here, to denote the 
contrary, so that they may be considered as a kind of compounds with ovk. This 
appears to have become the rule with ov (prjixi, ov (pdaKSiv, so that e\en'sdv was 
joined to it. See below, § 148. 06s. 2. In other cases, where the unconditional 
OVK is used preferably to ju)}, this preference must have a sensible foundation in 
the context. Thus in the example taken from Andocides de Myst. p. 5. Et ^e 
ovdkv rjfxdprrjTai fxoi, kui tovto vfilv cntodiiKvv}xi aa(pS)Q, dsojxai vfxuv avro 
(pavepbv roXg "EXXrjai Trdai Troirjcrai, it is obviously the speaker's intention most 
positively to assert his innocence, since, as is well known to every body, I have not 
failed in any thing. In Eurip. Med. 87. Ei rov(xSe {his children) y' evvrjg ovvsk 
ov (rrepyei irarrip, the oh arkpyu expresses this relation as a notorious one, and d 
refers merely to the stated cause, fi/vJ}? ovvtKa. The case is different with the 
three examples in Herm. ad Medeam, p. 344, 361. They all three belong to the 



SYNTAX. 415 

c. As intention also has its foundation merely in the con- 
ception of the speaker, f.n) is constantly used with the 
particles "iva, ujq, ottwq, ware, whenever they really an- 
nounce a purpose or design. It is also employed in any 
proposition containing a loish, request, or prohibition. In 
all these instances it answers to the Latin ne, and begins 
the proposition like this, the idea of a loish being men- 
tally understood, M77 yivoiro, may it not happen I 

d. Any thing, which is stated in sermone obliquo as the 
opinion, argument, or supposition of another, appears in- 
deed to be a dependent proposition ; but as it distin- 
guishes itself only in form from a direct assertion, com- 
mon usage prefers ovk in most instances, and we meet 
with 'NojULiZ^L ov KoXov dvai, — Ovk WiXeiv ^rjdiv, and the 
like. M?7, however, may be used in many such instances ; 
Xenoph. Hell. 3, 2, 19, 'Evojuiaav avrov fii) j3ov\e(j6aL 
fiaXXov rj fii) EvvaaOai, and the dependent or indirect 
question with n, whether, is commonly attended by /.ir), 

e. To the conditions and suppositions mentioned at (b.) 
belong likewise all pronouns relative, when they refer 
not to defined objects, but barely to the conceptions of 
the mind. We thus have, for instance, Ov^ug Xiy^erai 
XPVl^ciTa, oaTig jur) irapicTTai, no one shall receive money 
who is not present ; but, Ovroi daiv, ol ouS' otlovv rovg 

coiistruction with [xev and dk stated below, the second half of which propositions 
is constantly the real object of the thought, while the first is barely its counterpart 
or contrast. We ti-anscribe the passage of Thuc. 1, 121, verbatim : — 

''H deivov av elr], el ol fiev eneivuiv ^vjj.iJ.axoi' sttI SovXeia ry aiirwv (pspovrsQ ovk 
aTrepoiKTiv, ri/jLelg Sk kiri T(^ Ti[X(ijpovpLSvoL rovg ix^P'^^Q '^'^'^ avrol ufxa aiioZerTOaij 
OVK dpa daTravr](ro[xev. 

The oi/K here in the first proposition is necessary and natural, because the fact is 
notorious ; but in the second proposition ovk is indeed strange and extraordinary, 
the matter being actually considered as impossible, in which case /t?) appears as 

necessary as in the similar proposition below, § 149. (AiVxpov sarir d ixrjH 

rovg Xoyovg .) The case is the same with the two passages of two very dif- 
ferent writers quoted by Hermann, p. 361j which introduce similar double px'opo- 
sitions with dsLvov d, in the second of which ov appears equally strange and extra- 
ordinary. There must be a general cause for it, which 1 consider to be this : the 
proposition ceivbv d, which expresses some astonishment, insensibly becomes, after 
the first half, an angry interrogative expressive of the utmost surprise, by means of 
01'. Hence the proposition in Thuc. closes with the question, ovk dpa Ca—avr]<Jo- 
fiev ; in Herod. 7, 9, with "EWr]vag Se — ov TifxujprjaofieOa ; and in Andocides de 
JMyst. 13. 'Ej^ VfxXv ?e — ov auj9i)(rofiai ; which appears to me a very natural ethos. 
Criticism will be able thus to account for other similar cases which are yet unex- 
plained. In Herod. 6, 9, (ti — ov Troa/coucrt,) the MSS. have fir). In Eurip. Cyclop. 
428. fir' oi) xpvZ^~^, d has the signif. of icheiher, which is susceptible of both con- 
structions. See the Note to Plato Meno 23, and Herm. ad Eurip. Med. p. 344, 
whei'e in the passage quoted from Plato Protag. 77^ d ovk alaxvvoixai, tchether I 
am not ashamed, ovk is suggested by the direct question, ovk aiaxvvu ; 



416 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

TToXejuLovg (dXaTTTovcTi, Cyvop. 6j 1, 28^ positively, these 
are those who do not hurt the enemy in the least. 

f. Hence all those short phrases, which may be considered 
as one of those dependent constructions, are always 
stated by ^ri only. Thus in particular the articulus prce- 
positivus as an abbreviation of the pronoun relative with 
the verb uvai, ex. gr. ra fir) icaXa, i. e. ariva fxrj koXcl 
l(7Tiv, whatever is not beautiful. Thus Anab. 4, 4, 15, it 
is said of a veracious man, that he always stated ra fxri 
ovra wg ovk ovra. Here to. /mrj ovra is the abbreviation 
of the dependent proposition, anva jui] i]v, lohat was not, 
untruth ; but ovk ovra is the participle of the positive 
and direct negation, ovk Iegtl : for, as a finite verb, it 
would necessarily be, ra firi ovra ou/c ecrriv {what is not, 
is not). — Again, the participles, even without an article, 
whenever they are an abbreviation of one of the above 
constructions; "HSiov av l\p(l)fir]V rtJ 'AA/c/jSm^rj fjir]^\v 
KeKTr]ij.iv(ji), I should be better pleased with my intimacy 
with Alcibiades, if he were not wealthy, {el fir^^Ev ktKrrjro,) 
but ovdlv K£Krr]/x£V(i), who has no fortune. 

g.) Any negation governed by another verb, is also a de- 
pendent one : hence all infin. (except those mentioned 
at d. as being in sermone obliquo,) are most generally 
construed with fxr], of which the reason is already appa- 
rent in part from what we have stated above, since most 
infin. may be converted into such propositions ; To firi 
rifxav yipovrag avoaiov eari, if one does not honour, — 
consequently it is a supposition. But even when the 
negation is positive, the infin, yet takes ^u), ex. gr. To 
jii77 TTSLGOrivai fioi airiov gol tCjv kukCjv {that thou didst not 
believe me). Thus fxr\ ' comes not only after diojuai, 
KeXevix), viriGXvovjuaL, &c. but also after Set, avdyKr}, and 
the like, even when these words do not denote any obli- 
gation or necessity dependent on the will of any individual, 
but bare physical necessity. 

h.) Most instances, respecting which some grammarians 
pretend that oh denies whole propositions, and ju?) only 
parts of a proposition, may be brought under this rule ; 
lig ovv TpoTTog tov KaXCjg rt koX ju?) ypa^ecv ; Here indeed 
jULYi denies merely the KoXiog, but even alone the sentence 
would be, Tig ovv rpoirog tov fxri KakCjg ypacpeiv, and the 



SYNTAX. 417 

fii) is merely used in consequence of the dependence of 
the infill. ypa(/)ffv : complete it is, Tig ovv rpoTrog, el tiq 
(5ovXeTai luiri KaXCog ypafnv; (See also similar proposi- 
tions^ § 151. IV. 3.) Thus in the question, '^Apa du 
jue irapayeviaOaL, rj fii] ; the latter means, ^ or must I not ?' 
the fii) then denies merely the infin. irapayeviaOai : the 
force of ^£t is not destroyed, but I am obUged not to be 
present ; if the words were ri ov,ihe Sa would be denied, 
17 ov ^H ; or is it not necessary ? Plato Phcedr, 70. Tou- 
TOig e^euTL filv TreiOedOat, e^eart Si fxi]. 
Obs. 1. It is, however, frequently at the option of the speaker, whether for the 
sake of distinctness, distinction, or emphasis, he treats a negation, which in itself 
is dependent, as if it were a direct negation involved in the construction ; and Dice 
versa, many a positive negation implied in a construction with the part, may on that 
account be expressed with jwjj. We meet with an instance of the latter in Demosth. 
pro Cor. 276. ''Hv di (6 ^tXiTTTrog) ovt iv ry OaXaTTy tots KpeiTTOJv v/xaiv, ovt tig 
Trjv 'Attiktjv sX9eXv dvvaTog, fjLr]T8 9erra\wv dKoXovOovvTwv, fitjTe QrjjSaiojv 
di'isvTMv : the latter part means, as neither did the Thessalonians follow him, nor the 
Thebans grant to him a passage. This compi-ises facts, and the negation is not de- 
pendent on any conception of the mind or any thing else ; in any other case the 
part, would have been construed with ovts. But ovti had gone before, and as in 
Greek, (as we shall see below. Text 6.) when, after a negation, the same negative 
ptaHide is repeated, it always refers again to the first -mentioned circumstance, the 
meaning, if we had here ovte instead of ixr]Ti, would necessarily be, Philip could 
not come to Attica, neither in case the Thessalians followed him, nor if a passage were 
granted to him by the Thebans. It is therefore merely by way of a distinction from 
the preceding ovtz, that we have here ixriTf in a negation, which, though not de- 
pendent, is yet subordinate. 

Obs. 2. The particles ovk and nrj have in some expressions the power not only of 
denying, but even of asserting the contrary. Thus in particular ov ttclvv must not 
be rendered not quite, but by no means ; ov (prjjxi is not / do not say, but / say not, 
deny; Ovk e^aaav ikvai, they refused to go ; Ov^ vttkjxvovvto avvdi.i7:vr]aHV,they 
declined the invitation, Xenoph. Symp. 1, 7 ', Ovx vTredsKeTo, refused, Herod. 3, 50. 
That /i/) should have this property in a dependent proposition, appears to be the 
case only in later writers ; Plut. in Gryllo, 1. "Aj/ Sk [xtj (pCJaiv. In Plato Apol 
Socr.p).2b. (§ 12.) Bekker has restored from the best MSS. ov (piJTe, instead of 
lav TS — firj (priTe, so that even ov itself comes after idv (compare above, the Note 
to p. 415). Lysias iii Agor. 137, always had, 'Edv 5' ov (pdcrKy. 

Obs. 3. Both OVK and [xt) are put immediately before subst. to render them tiega- 
tive, and make a kind of compound words (compare the same case with other ad- 
verbs, above, § 125, 6). For instance, r) ovk aTTodsi^ig, rj ov SiaXvcig, the non- 
demonstration, non-dissolution, non-destruction; to. ixy] dSta,the non-species; r) fxi) 
t/x7reipia, non- experience, inexperience. Both ai'e abbreviations of propositions having 
either ovk or nrj, ex. gr. rj ov SidXvcfig tuiv yt<pvpa>v,the non-destriiction of the bridges, 
the fact that the bridges were not destroyed (a direct and real negation with ov) : 
dnvov IcTTiv r] jxri £jW7r£ipia, it is grievous to have no experience, it is a sad thing when 
one has no experience (a mere assumption with /^j)). 

8. We have just seen (2, c.) that ju?? is used in ' particular 
with the verbs ^ to wish, request, command^' Whenever it is 

E e 



418 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

construed with a wish, it requires the opt. ; M77 ykvoiTo — fxri 
"l^olq tovto, that you may not get to see it ! In a negative re- 
quest or command it requires the present tense or the aor., 
according as the action^ which is requested or commanded, is of 
some duration, or momentary, (which, however, is frequently 
optional,) according to § 137,5, but always with this restric- 
tion, that 

of the present it only takes the imper., and 

of the aor. only the conj. : 
consequently, fxr) jue jSaXXe, or jur/ jue jdaXyg. To the very few 
exceptions from this rule belong some passages in Homer 
(//. S. 410. Od. w. 301. u). 248). 

4. The idea of apprehension or fear, which we express posi- 
tively in German and English, / am afraid that some accident 
will happen to him, is introduced in Greek, as in Latin, with 
a negative ; AtSoiKa jii] rt TrdOy, vereor ne quid illi accidat, 
which is also done in French, je crahis qu^il ne lui arrive 
quelque chose de fdcheux. That this conj. becomes an opt. in 
connexion with time past, and in a dependent proposition, 
appears from § 139. (after H.) Ohs, 1. 

Ohs. 4. Expressions of fear or precaution are likewise frequently construed with 
the fut. ; Fla.to PJiileb. p. 13, ^o^ovixai fxij svptjaofxev. Aristoph. jE/cc?. 486, irepi- 
CKOTTOVfikvlf] fJLT) yevi]<TSTai. 

Obs. 5. In the sense oifear or apprehension firj sometimes makes a proposition by 
itself ; M?) tovto aXXwg £%^. Such expressions are readily explained by under- 
standing mentally ^ojSovfiai or opa, (look to it,) I am afraid it is otherwise, or look to 
it, it may be otherwise. This assumption, however, is sometimes awkward, and it 
may be stated at once that the Greek language forms through this fxrj with the 
conj. and a certain emphasis of utterance, sentences expressive of care or admo- 
nition, just as there are sentences expressive of a wish, request, and interrogation. 

5. M?7 frequently is merely an emphatic iriterrogative par- 
ticle, of which the negation has vanished, and which mostly 
answers to the Latin num, somewhat stronger than juwv, — M?) 
^OKU (701 rouro uvai evr]9eg ; does this by chance appear foolish 
to you ? — Ou, on the contrary, is the negative question, by which 
the speaker gives to understand that he affirms, Ov kol koXov 
Igtl to ayaOov ; is not ivhat is good also beautiful ? This inter- 
rogation expects to be replied to by yes, whilst that with fxri 
commonly expects no. 

6. When other relations or modifications of a general na- 
ture, as ever, any, any one, any where, &c. are to be added to 
a negative proposition, they are commonly compounded with 
the same negative particle used in the proposition itself; Ovk 



SYNTAX. 419 

£7roir](r£ tovto ovda/uLov ovddg,no one ever did this anyivhere, Plato 
Parmen. extr, TaXXa rwv }xr\ oi-roov ov^zvi ovda/irj oudajULwg 
ovdsfilav Koivwviav 'ix^i. And the negation of parts of a propo- 
sition is added in the same way to the negation of the whole ; 
Ou ^vvarm ovr eu Xsysiv, ovt ev ttoielv Tovg (piXovg, where we 
should say in English he can neither — nor — . Accumulated 
7iegatives do not cancel one another, (as in Latin nonnunquam 
and the likej but rather strengthen one another. 

06s. 6. The two distinct negative particles ovic and fxi] are joined in some phrases 
merely to strengthen tlie expression ; viz. 

1.) ov fxr) in protestations or assertions relating to futurity, (whence the con- 
struction stated § 139. Obs. 1, I. 3.) and in the confidential request 
arising from it. Both connected 2^(irticles may also be separated by other 
words, and the compound negatives {ovde, ovdelg, &c.) may be used instead 
of ovK. See the instances in § 139. 
2.) /uj} ov, but only in their simple form, and not separated ; most commonly 
before iiijin. instead of ju?) alone; IIoXov TrapaixvOtov TroLrjffsig avri^, f-irj ovx'- 
d-TreiTTEiv ; ichat solace iclll you afford to him, that he may not despair ? 
Aiaxvvojxai fjirj ov ttouTv tovto, I am ashamed not to do this. Sometimes they 
are put heiore 2X(rtic'iples instead of si ixij with the verb. (Schsef. Melet. 108.) 
06s. 7' But in this respect, and with regard to the rule that two or more nega- 
tions only strengthen one another, there are two principal exceptions ; Greek nega- 
tions actually cancel one another, as in Latin, 

a.) when yu?) has one of its particular meanings, (2, c.) expressive of intention, 
fear, apprehension, &c. For instance, //. a. 28. where Chryses is ordered to 
go away and threatened, 'Mrj vv toi ov xpaiaiijj aKrjTTTpov Kai <JTk[.ifia Otolo, 
that the staff' and the filet of the god be not unavailing to you. It is frequently 
the same with the idea oi fear ; <^o(3ovnai fii) ov kuXov y {yereor ne non 
honestum sit). Here fxrj retains its power, though we should render it like 
the Latin ne simply by that expressed or understood, neglecting the fol- 
lowing negation : I am afraid it is not decent. 
b.) when the two negations belong to two different verbs, even when one of them 
is in the i?art., Horn, oi)^' ovk iQkXovTa jua%6cr0at, but commonly one of the 
negations is then for the sake of distinctness strengthened by yn) ov, ex. gr. 
M>) ovx} i^t'''*'^ avTov OVK av dvvaiixrjv, not to hate him is not in my power, i.e. 
/ must hate him. 
Obs. 8. Hence the negations cancel each other in the expression, ovSsig offTig ov, 
(nemo non,) because the verb dvai generally is here omitted after the first negation. 
It should strictly be, for instance, ovdelg (sc. icTTiv) o(TTig juj) 7roir]<7ei, there is no one 
who icill not do this, i. e. every one will do it. But this omission of tort is so com- 
pletely forgotten, that not only ju?) becomes ovk, but, exceptmg the nomin., the ovddg 
is attracted in the construction (according to a particular form of attraction, which 
will be stated below, § 151, I. 4.) to the following principal verb ; and we conse- 
quently find, for instance, ovdevl '6t(ij ovk apkaKSi, ' nemini non placet,^ there is no one 
whom it does not please, i. e. it pleases every one. — Demosth. (c. Aristocr.yYyitXg fxav u) 
a. 'A. ovdkva vrpovddjKaTS tmv cpiXojv, QsTTaXoi de ovdsva ttojttoO' ovTiva ov (sc. 
TTjOou^wKav), i. e. they have betrayed all their friends ^. 

^ The omission of oaTig in this phrase in Xenoph. Symp. 1, 9. is doubtful ', see 
Schneider's 06s. But it is unquestionable in the Oracle in Herod. 5, 56. 

E e2 



420 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 9. But the Greeks being so accustomed to the idea that an additional nega- 
tive merely serves to strengthen the other, a verb, in the signif. of which there is 
alresidy tinegation, is yet construed with an additional negative particle/ RvavTiwOriv 
avTi^ ixi]dkv TToieiv Ttapa tovq v6}iovq, I opposed him, i. e. I prevented his doing any 
thing contrary to the laws ; Anab. 1, 3, 2. Mik^ov k^'s(pvys tov fxij KaraTnrpcjOrjvai, 
he scarcely escaped the danger of being stoned. See Ind. ad Plat. Meno. v. [xi]. Exc. 
XI. ad Demosth. Mid. 

Obs. 10. The expression ei ^l [xii), but if not, should properly come after affirmative 
sentences; but it is so familiar as a complete contradiction to the preceding propo- 
sition, that it also stands after negative sentences, and consequently affirms in such 
cases; Anab. 4, 3, 6. See Heind. ad Plat. Hipp. 134. 

See the following Section about ovde and fjirjds, 

§ 149. — Of some other Particles. 

1. The use of the Greek particles is so various, and in part 
attended with so many difficulties, that it will be proper to 
review the most important ones with particular attention. 
cjg, as a relative adverb, has the follow signif. : 

1.) as, when; hence in speaking of time, tog Be 7]X6ov, ov 
Tra^rjv, when I arrived, he was not there ; 2.) it strengthens 
the superl., especially of adverbs, mq TaxiGra, as quickly as 
possible, and also the positive of some, particularly d>c aXy]- 
Qh)Q, most truly, wg irepwg, very differently, and some other 
examples in Heind. ad Plat. Apol. S. 23. Pr6ef. The in- 
stances where it comes after an adverb, OavfxacTTiog wg, virt^- 
(pvLog wg, are explained below, § 151, 1. 5. 3.) About, nearly, 
(jjg 7rEvrr}KovTa, about fifty. 4.) To prep, answering the 
question whither, eirX, elg, irpog, ex.gr. 'Ewopsvero log kwl tov 
TTora/xov, it gives the signif. towards, ^ versus^ (properly, 
in the direction as if he w^anted to get to the river). — 
Thuc. 6, 61. 'AttIttAeov fiera rrig ^aXafiLviag Ik Tr\g ^iKeXiag 
ujg £c 'A6{]vag. This expression properly denotes merely 
the direction taken, and leaves it undecided whether the 
place was reached. Hence it may always be employed 
about a Journey which is not yet finished, Soph. Philoct. 
58. TrXac S' wc Trpog oT/cov, you sail homewards. 

As a conjunction, it means, 1.) that, UavrEg ofioXoyovjuev^ 
wg 17 aperrj KpaTiarrov Igtl : see § 139, G. 2.) in order that, 
see § 139, E. 3.) so that with the infin. (more usually Ioctte,) 
see § 139, F. 4.) since (see § 139, C). 5.) because, see § 144. 
Obs. 6. and § 145. Obs. 5. hence also 6.) the Latin '■quippe,' 
for, Kqcltlgtov iarai (Tvy^w prjaai, wg ai) SoKug ovk cKpfiaEtv jue, 
it will be best to yield, for you seem not to intend to release me. 



SYNTAX. 421 

About the prep. (Jc? see § 147. Ohs. 6. 

wVj (with the accent^ § 116^ 5.) for ovrbiq^ is very usual with 
poets, especially the lonians ; but in prose it is chiefly 
used only in the expressions icai wV, even thus^ i. e. even 
in these ch^umstafices, and its opposite ovS' mq, not even 
thus, yet not. 

oTTfog, as adverb, also signifies as, ivhen, and as conjunction, in 
order that. We have seen its construction above, § 139, E. 
and only notice here that it also supplies the place of an 
energetic imper. ottojq eaeaOe, Anab. ] , 7, 3. be by alt means, 
i. e. take care that you be. 

*iva, as adverb, 'where/ as conjunction, (§ 139, E.) likewise in 
order that ;• — 'Iva ri ; wherefore ? why ? (as it were, in order 
that something be done.) 

w(TT£, so that, commonly with the infin. (§ 131, F. 142, 4.) 

oTt, that, instead of the Latin accus. with the infin. see 1 39, G. 
We must also notice the peculiarity, that it is used before 
the very words of another quoted, 'ATreKpivaTo on fiaaiXdav 
ovK av ^e^aifini', he answered, I will &c. 
It also means because ; elliptically for ^la tovto on, or its ab- 
breviation dion (§ 115. Obs. 5) : but later writers often 
have dion for on, that. 
It strengthens all superlatives, (compare (oq,) ex. gr. on \xi- 
yidTog, as great as possible, on fiaXiaTa, &c. 

TovvEKa, (barely in the Epic poets,) on that account^ therefore. 
ovvEKa 1.) wherefore; 2.) as conjunction, because (for rou 
%viKa, ov evEKo). But poets also use ovveku, 1.) for evsKa, 
for the sake of, 2.) for on, that. 
oOovvEKa, (see § 29. Obs. 10.) in the tragic poets, as much as 
ovv£Ka, because, that. 

el, 1.) if; § 139. A. — 2.) to the indirect question whether, see § 139, 
H. 2. and § 148, 2, b. When el comes after Oavfiat^M and 
some other verbs expressive of feelings, it should be used of 
uncertain things, {ex. gr., if you are not sensible of it,) but 
the Attic custom, to avoid being positive in speaking, has 
caused this particle to be employed not only for very pro- 
bable, but also for very certain things, consequently for on 
and the like. See the instance above, § 139, G. Obs. 3. — 
Demosth. Mid. 29. Ovk yaxvvOri el tolovto kqkov errayei rw, 
he has not been ashamed to bring such a misfortune on — 



422 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

^sch. c. Ctes. (537. Reiske,) Ovk ayawa h nirj S/kt^v e^toKsv, 
he is not satisfied with being left unpunished. 

— ft Kai, with the indie, though. But koX d, and kciv h, if even, 
suppose even. The last is construed with the indie, in 
spite of av : see the Note to Demosth. Mid. 15. Heind. ad 
Plat. Soph. 59. 

— HTit;, HTL, properly if any one, any thing ; but this expression 
emphatically supplies the pronoun oang, ex. gr. "E^^ftpov 
HTL x^T^o-'/uov riv Iv rw irs.'^iw, ivhatever. Compare § 147. 
Obs. 7. 

— £1 yap is also used to express a loish, O that ! else a0£. 

Ittu, after, 2:) since, Lat. quoniam, § 139^ C. D. 3. before inter- 
rogatives and imper.it means /or; 'Ettei ttwc clv diaKpivoifxEv 
avT6;for how else could we discriminate it P 'EttsI Oiaaai 
avTog,for look only yourself. 

oTTov, where, {there where,) 2.) as a conjunction, since, if indeed, 
Lat. siquidem. 

oTTore, is also often used for since, like the Lat. quandoquidem. 

av, (poetically ke, kIv,) see above § 139. 

eav, rjv, av, — orav, ETTstdav, see the same Section, 

— lav in particular has after verbs signifying to investigate, 
examine, see, the power of the Latin an, ' whither, iff 
SKOTTft lav iKavov 1^, look whether it be sufficient. But fre- 
quently the verb is wanting, and must be mentally supplied. 
M?)§£ TovTo apprjTov £(7rw poi, lav ai ttwq 7ru(no, neither will 
I leave this untold, (to see) if I can prevail with you. See 
Ind. ad Flat. Meno. &c. Schneid. ad Xenoph. Mem. 4, 4^, 
12. — Homer's a'//c£, //. o. 420. is employed exactly in 
this way. 

ri, or, which signif. it always retains even in questions, Ovrwg 
Igtiv, ri OVK oiu ; so it is, or do you not think so ? woOev i^kel; 
rj ^rjXov on £$ ayopag ; whence comes he ? or is it certain 
(and then the question is unnecessary) that he comes from 
the market-place ? See Ind. ad Plat. Meno. in v. 
— In comparisons it is than, Lat. qua^n ; 2oi tovto fxaXXov api~ 
(TKEi, rj f,uoij this pleases you better than it does me. — When 
the compar. refers to a proportion, we have rj rrpbg or rj 
Kara, ex. gr. M£i^wv r\ Kar av6p(i)7rov, taller than a man 
usually is ; 'H ^o^a Igtlv lAarrwv r) irpoq to KaTopOto/na, the 
glory is less than is due to the deed (Lat. ' quam pro '). 



SYNTAX. 423 

Quite different is 
ri, which originally signifies iruli/, certainly ; it is most com- 
monly a mere interrogative particle, Lat. num ? 
KiiL and tI are exactly the Lat. et and que, and kol also signifies 
also, even, &c. If rl comes before koI, it means not only, 
and /cal then means but also; Avtoq r£ TVQavvoq lyivero, 
KOL Toig TTaiGi TYiv TVQavvL^a KareXiirev : in other instances 
these particles signify — as well — as. But this double 
connexion is often used where we simply have once and, 
tI is very frequently redundant in Epic poetry. This 
arises from the circumstance, that in the old language 
this particle imparted to several words the connecting 
power, which these words retained in the more polished 
language without retaining the particle itself. Hence 
we frequently meet in the old poets with iiiv re, de re, 
yap re, and even Kai re, (also,) for juev, de, yap, and Ka\ 
alone. But the particle re most commonly comes after 
all kinds of relatives, because in the old language they 
were all merely forms of the pronoun demonstrative, 
which through this re obtained the connecting power, 
and thus became the relative which. As soon, however, 
as these forms were exclusively allotted to the relative 
signif., the particle re was dropped as superfluous. 
Hence we often find in Homer og re, octov re, &c. in- 
stead of og, ocrov, and the like. The particles Ibare and 
are^ and the expressions olog re and e^' w re (§ 150.) of 
the common language ^ are a remnant from the ancient 
usage. (Respecting r apa see rot.) 

But Kttt alone in the sense of also is often introduced 
in familiar conversation, seemingly without any neces- 
sity ; Plato Alcib. 1, 6. (/ admit all your questions,) ha 
KOL eldu), on Kttj epe7g, where we should use different 
particles, ' that I may know what you will say.^ 

Before ixaXa and -rravv it has a peculiar energy ; Tovro 
yap Kttl fxdXa aKpL(5(dg, I know this, and indeed very 
accurately. 



^ This is, in my opinion, the best way of accounting for the above-mentioned 
Epic expressions. Yet I readily grant that there may be other suppositions to 
account for them. But I cannot agree with Hermann in explaining all this by an 
hypothesis of his own, that kul and re, and the Latin et and que, were originally 
difterent, and that re signified the Lsithi forte. 



424 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

— KOL, in comparisons, like the Latin atque, see Ind, ad Plat. 

Meno. cet. 
KOL — ^l, see after dL 

Se, [but,) is far from having a constant adversative power ; in 
most instances it is a mere transition and connexion to 
announce something new^ where we use either the copula 
AND, or no conjunction at all. The Greeks employed it, 
where they could not make use of any other particle, 
merely to avoid an asyndeton, i. e. a new proposition un- 
connected with what came before introduced in the midst 
of a speech, such as good writers never admit, unless it is 
to produce some rhetorical effect.- In the old language Se 
also served for other conjunctions, especially yap [Od. §. 
369) : particular attention must, therefore, be paid to the 
context in Homer to be able to judge which of the three 
principal signif. 

and^ but, for, 
it has in a given sentence. Homer also frequently uses §£ 
merely for a limitation of time, which else is connected by 
tuc, ore, &c. Od, j3. 313. 

Whenever K.ai and hi are together in a proposition, 
• Koi can only mean also ; kol ovtoq hi irapriv, but this also 
was there. But they likewise frequently signify and 
also. As KoX KoX cannot be used in Greek, ^£ supplies 
the place of kqI in such instances, e.g. Nvy irspX ipvx^v tCjv 
vjueTEpwv £(tt\v 6 aywv, kol irepl yvvaiKtJv cl koX rtfcvwv. 
Were KoX—hl — to be rendered here literally, but also for 
your wives and children, it would give a false emphasis 
to the context. The meaning is simply this, noiv you 
have to fight for your own life, and also {and additionally) 
for wives and children. In common language, the ex- 
pression can take place only when the principal word, 
to which KOL refers, comes before dl, but in Epic poetry 
KOL hi constantly follow close on each other ; //. £. 700. 
Kap7raXi/i(x)g irpo veiov l\ifxev \a6v re /cat ittttouc ^Orpv- 
vijjv, KoX h' avTog lv\ TTpofiaxoidL fxayeaOai. 
fxlv and hi are two particles, which go together, and serve as ^£ 
alone. They connect like it is true — but — and are much 
more frequently employed, as they merely combine twa 
different propositions, without denoting any contrast or 
opposition. Thus a Section, Chapter, or even part of a 



SYNTAX. 425 

whole Work, often ends with, for instance, Kat Tama fxlv 
ovrwQ lyivETOy {things happened so,) when the next Chapter, 
Section, or Book, must necessarily begin with something- 
like, T^ S' vGTspaia {on the following day). It is only 
when the context clearly requires it, that juev is to be 
rendered, it is true indeed. 

Two propositions often are united by ixlv and ^£, of 
which the second alone belongs to the context, the first 
being premised merely to give more effect to the second 
by its contrast ; Demosth. Olynth. II. 'AXX' Ikhvo Oav- 
fiaZit), H {that) AaKsdaifiovLOic; fiiv ttote, w av^peg 'AOy}- 
valoL, virlp tCjv ^^Wyivlkwv ^iKaiwv avr^pare, /cat, — \va 
ol aXXoL Tvy(jb)Gi tCjv diKaitov, ra v/ULir^pa avTU)V avriXiaKSTE 
ao-^Epovrsc, — vvvX S' oKvure l^iivai, Kal fieXXere {delay) 
uar^ipuv inrlp tCjv vfxeTepwv avTwv KTYifxaTwv. Demosth. 
here is not surprised at the first proposition, that the 
Athenians once defended the rights of all the Greeks 
against the Lacedaemonians, but at the second propo- 
sition, that they, who once acted thus, would not take 
proper measures for the protection of their own pro- 
perty. AIg\qov lariv, ei lyii) fxlv rovg Trovovg vfj.Hg Se 
jUTidl TovQ Xojovg avTiov avE^eaOs, pro Cor. 281 : it is 
obvious that the first proposition here is praiseworthy, 
and the second alone shameful, not in itself, but in con- 
trast with the first. The following example, which is 
misunderstood by most interpreters, shows what atten- 
tion it is necessary to pay to such connexions ; Eurip. 
Iph. T. 115. 

OvTOL liaKpov filv rjXdojUEv Kwiry Tropov, 
'Efc repfxarojv Ss voarov apovp,EV iraXiv. 
Here the negation properly belongs only to the second 
proposition, and the first as a contrast may come after, 
we will not, when we are at the goal, sail back again, 
after having performed such a long voyage. The con- 
nexion of the two propositions is still more striking in 
this sense, it shall not be said of us that tve performed a 
long voyage, and went back again, when ive had reached 
our destination. It is the same if we take the whole for 
a disapproving question. See Seidler ^ 

2 The same phrase is also used sometimes in Latin, but agreeably to the syntax 
of that language, without snch particles : Horace, Sat. 1, 2, 84. 

Quod venale habet, ostendit ; nee, si quid honesti est, 
Jactat, hahetque palam ; qucerit quo turpia celet. 



436 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

This jU£y — ^£ — affords an emphatic way of connecting 
two ideas belonging to the same proposition instead of 
the more usual te — kuX — ^ so that one word of the propo- 
sition is repeated; Xenoph. Mem. 2, 1, 32. 'Eyw Se 
(jvvEijULL filv Oeoig, avvufxi 8' avOpwTToiQ tolq ayaOoig, in- 
stead of the cooler avvHiii OeoTg t£ /cat a. r. a. And even 
without julv in the first part of the proposition^ when 
the usual connecting form would require simply Km. 
See Soph. Philoct. 827, and about the repetition of the 
bare preposition of compound verbs in such a phrase, 
§ 147. Obs. 10. 

Strictly speaking, jU£v never can be used without ^e, or 
a pai^ticle of similar import, (aXXa, juevtoi,) correspond- 
ing to it in the subsequent proposition. Yet 1.) from 
rhetorical motives the second proposition is sometimes 
omitted, or differently expressed; 2.) in some usual 
phrases, where the second proposition must be con- 
sidered as having completely vanished, filv is used alone, 
(like the Latin quidem,) to isolate a person or thing, 
and remove any thing, which else might be expected ; 
thus in particular lyu) ixlvy [equidem,) and the like. 
See Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 36. Thecet. 49. In Epic 
poetry ixlv also frequently occurs for /ii^v, which see 
below. 

We have already seen above (§ 126.) the expression 
6 jjLEv — 6 ^£ — or oc ixEv — 6c Sf — derived from fxlv — 
§£ — . The same particles afford similar distinctions for 
adverbs ; and not only demonstrative and relative, but 
also indefinite forms are thus employed : ttote jjlev — ttotc 
^£ — {sometimes — sometimes — ; or at one time — at another 
time); it is the same with tote and 6te — (see § 116. 
Obs. 9.) and r?? juev — ry Be — or ttyj juev—ttyi ^e — {in this 
way — in that ivay), tvOa juev — EvOa §£, and others. In 
such distinctions it sometimes happens that, for instance, 
6 JUEV, 6 S' ov are without a verb in reference to a pre- 
ceding proposition, when fxlv appears to have an affirma- 
tive signif. nearly like the English much, indeed, Ylavrag 
(})LXr}TEov, aW ov tov julev tov 8' ou, we ought to love all, 
not one much, and the other not at all ; liagriaav ovx o 
jU£v, 6 S' ou, aWa TrdvTEg, there were present, not one 
INDEED, and the other not, but all. 
ovTE and iutite. 



SYNTAX. 427 

ov^e and jujjSs. Both forms serve to connect negative proposi- 
tionsj and correspond to the Latin ' neque,' neither — nor ; 
with this difference, that ovn, fxi]Ts, affect parts of proposi- 
tions, or represent the negation as belonging to that with 
which they connect, it, whilst oh^l, /aridE, rather serve to 
connect whole propositions, partly as a strong contrast, 
and partly as a transition. Oute and /x/jts are more 
copulative, like kol when it is not employed in a negative 
proposition; ov^l and ^rjSs more disjunctive, like SI. 
Whenever ovre or ii{]Te is repeated, the negations generally 
refer one to the other, as in Latin ' neque — neque' — 
neither — nor; but when oh'^l or /iijSf is repeated, it only 
gives successive negations of the same kind as oh^l alone. 
Besides being connecting particles, ov^l and ^rjSe also 
correspond to the particular signif of koi, just as this 
signifies affirmatively 1.) also, 2.) even, so do these 
signify negatively 1.) neither, 2.) not even, and always 
have the latter signif. when they are in the middle of a 
proposition. 

Originally ov^l and fxri^l signified ^ not however,^ and 
must still often be understood thus in Epic poetry ; they 
then are frequently written separate % oh ^l, firi di. In 
common language the coalition of §£ with the negative 
particle was avoided, either by placing these words dif- 
ferently, or by employing aXXa or arap. 
aXXa has the intensive signif of ^l, and is at the same time the 
English adversative but. It is, however, applied in various 
ways in a lively style, which are only learned by study. 
It is especially used abruptly at the beginning of a speech, 
or even of a whole work, when it often is in translatable, 
and may but seldom be rendered yes^ truly, indeed, or the 
like. 
—aXXa yag, see the Notes to Soph. Philoct. 81, 874. 
yap, for, always comes after other words, like the Lat. enim. 
It has a very varied elliptical use, especially in conversa- 
tion, when it must be mentally prefaced by / believe it — 
no wonder, or the like ideas, which a careful attention to 



3 Even in Ionic prose, Herod. 5, 35. IloXXac £1%^ tXiriSag ixiTr]<naQai {to be dis- 
missed) IttI QaXaaaav, [ii^ de veurepov n irotevffrjg Tijg M-iXr/rov, {but if Miletus 
did not attempt any thing grievous, i. e. a desertion,) ovdaix^, k, t. X. 



428 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

the context easily suggests. It is likewise used inter- 
rogatively. 

This particle often appears superfluous to us in a 
proposition^ which has been announced by a preceding 
pronoun demonstrative; Xenoph. Mem. 1, J, 6. 'AXXa 
Hr\v kiroieL kol rade Trpog rovg e7riTY)ddovg, ra /ilv yap 
avajKoia Gvvef^ovXeve iTpaTTuv^ and so on; here we should 
say simply, he also did this (or what follows) for his 
friends, M counselled them what was necessary, &c. (See 
also Plato Lys. 14. Heind.) In these cases yap only ex- 
plains w^hat has been stated before, as is sometimes done 
in German and English by namely, 
ovv, consequently, therefore, follows only after other words. See 
about the ovv, which is annexed, as oaTiaovv, &c. § 80, 1. 
and 116, 9. From this are derived 

ovKOvv, ovKovv. Thc particles ovk and ovv used affirm- 
atively, imply a conclusive negative, ^ consequently not/ 
^ therefore not.' Hence in familiar language they were 
applied in different w^ays, which appear from the con- 
text, and are partly denoted by the accentuation. 1.) 
When used interrogatively, the negative conveys the 
affirmative opinion of the speaker. Eurip. Orest. 1238. 
OvKOvv ovddr] TaSs kXv(s)v pvaei riicva; willyou then,hear- 
ing these reproaches, not save your children ? Plato 
Phcedr. 258. Ov/couv, sav \x\v ovrog Ifxfiivy^, ysyrjOivg airip- 
^£rat £K Tov Oearpov ; does he not then, when this is abided 
by, go pleased from the theatre? This question, in con- 
sequence of being heard habitually as meaning the 
negative, affirmatively, became itself 2.) an affirmation 
without interrogative. Soph. Antig. 91. Ovkovv, orav Si) 
jui) gOsvio, TT^iravGOfiaL, I therefore shall give over, when I 
am no longer able. Plato Phaedr. 274. Ovkovv to jilv 
Ti\vr\q T£ KOL aTa)(^vLai' Xoycjv iripi iKavCog tx^'"^? ^^^^ then we 
have said enough of skill, and want of skill in speeches. 
Very different from this is 3.) ovkovv, when, without 
being conclusive, it merely is an intensive negation. 
Soph. Aj. 1336. 'AXX' avTov ejuirag ovr lyw tolovSs. fxoL 
Ovkovv arifxaGaiiJL av, but though he behaved to me in this 
manner, I should not like to insult him by any means : 
Philoct.S72.0vKOVv\\TpeiSai tovt tTXrjcrav sviropwg OvTiog 
IvtyKELv, loyaOol (TTpaTr]\aTai, the Atridm did not bear this 



SYNTAX. 429 

easily, &c. The similarity of the accent in the first and 
second ovkovv, as contradistinguished from the third 
ovKovv, has been traditionally handed down to us by the 
generality of editions ; and the statement of the ancient 
grammarians agrees with it. See Herm. ad Viger. n. 
261. to which may be added Apollon. de Conjunctions, 
p, 496, 9. — Phrynichus Bekkeri, p. 57. All admit a 
different accentuation only for the conclusive and nega- 
tive expression*. The accentuation of the affirmative and 
conclusive negation ^ consequently not^ ovkow, is generally 
not different from the accentuation of the third form. 
But as it is customary to distinguish the unaltered sig- 
nif. of compound particles by writing them separately, 
I think it is also proper in this case, and by no means 
repugnant to tradition : Plato Phcedr. 275. (after having 
told Theutli that man would become forgetful through 
this security, Thamus continues,) Ovkovv (more cor- 
rectly ovK ovv) iivi]fir]Q^ aXX vTrojULVJ^deivg (pap^aKOV ^vp^g, 
then it is not for memory, but for recollection, that you 
have found a remedy ! Eurip. Or est. 1640. 

MEN."0(7ric ^f Tifia furiTip' — Or. EvSat/xwv e(pv. 
Men. Ovkovv (more correctly ovk ovv) o-uye, then you 
{do) 7l0t ? 
aha and iiraTa, signify both afterwards, thereupon, 2.) then (see 
Herm. ad Viger. n. 239). Both are often used to express 
reproaches in a scolding manner : 1.) stating the motive of 
anger or surprise first, Tavra Br) ToXfxqg Xlyeiv — air lyd) aov 
(^idcjofiaL ; you dare to tell me this, and then [after all that, 
nevertheless, or yet) 1 am to spare you ? 2.) beginning a 
speech in reference to what had been said by another, just 
as we say, you will then — shorter then, Lat. itane, Elra 
ToK\ii](yiLq rov vlbv a7ro9v{](TKovTa daopav ', then you will take 
it on you to witness the death of your son 7 — Xenoph. Mem. 
1, 4, ll."E7r£tT' OVK oUl ^j00vri^£tv {sc. TovQ Oeovg tCjv avdpuj- 
TTwv), ot TTpCoTov julv — vlz. ivheu they yet first, &c. Both 
particles are also connected with participles in all these 

^ It is only in recent editions, that Hermann and others have begun to distin- 
guish the conclusive interrogatke by accenting it ovkovv, but I cannot approve of it. 
The first and second form have in tlae main the same affirmative signif. ; the accent 
of the interrogative is an ethic accent, which is not marked in any language by a 
gi'ammatical accent. Both kinds of tradition are against the practice; for there is 
no mention made by grammainaus, in any of the passages just quoted, of the inter- 
rogative signif. in this connexion. 



430 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

signif., as we have seen above § 144!. Obs. 6. But the in- 
stances^ in which ara and iiruTa are considered as depend- 
ent on the subsequent participle, (see Herm. ad Viger. n, 
219.) admit every one of them likewise a reference to the 
participle which preceded^ which ought to be preferred as 
more natural. 
av, 1.) again, aneiv ; 2.) on the other hand, contrariwise f^.) fur- 
ther, and also, 
TTQiv, before, is in point of signif. a compar., and takes therefore, 
when it refers to another proposition, the particle rj, com- 
monly with the infin.; Uplv rj eXOaiv Ijul, before I came. 
But frequently 77 is omitted, SLud-Trplv itself becomes a con- 
junction, TTplv eXOelv Bjue: — 7rp\v av IeXOlj points to the future. 
vvv di}, now, at this time ; and particularly with praeterites, 'just 

now/ ' shortly before,' 
TTO) and TTiLTTOTs. The principal signif. of these particles is till 
now, hitherto : but they are never joined to affii^mative 
propositions in this sense. Their use is confined to the 
following cases. 

They are most commonly joined to a negation, and 
express yet, Lat. dum ; ovttw, jLir]7rw, not yet, ' nondum,' 
but they must not be mistaken for the similar Epic 
forms, see § 116. Obs, 6. riwTrore, however, is seldom 
annexed to the simple ov or ^77 : it is always oi»S£7rw7ror£, 
jurjStTrwTrorf, never yet. This is mostly used alone in re- 
ference to the past, so that the form without ttw— ouSs- 
TTore, never — is commonly employed only generally, or 
with respect to the fut. See Wolf ad Demosth, Lept, 
7Q. and Lobeck ad Fhryn. 458. Both ttw and TrwTrore 
may be separated from the negative particle by other 
words between. 

These particles are also sometimes emphatically 
used with inter rogatives, relatives, and participles, which 
shorten this latter construction, Thuc. 3, 46. tiq ttw 
hTByupy\(SBv ; Demosth. Phil. I. "Oaa Trwyrore rjXiTiaaiusv, 
what we ever hoped for ; Plato Fhced, 116. "Apiarog tCjv 

TTiOTTOTE EsvpO (K^iKOfxivUiV, 

TrwjuaXa, see the following Section. 

in, alone is yet, still, further ; and with a negation^ ovkIti, prjKeri, 

no more, no longer, 
pa and vi), are particles of protestation, which always have the 



SYNTAX. 431 

object^ by which we swear, in the accus. ; ex. gr. vy\ Am, 
hy Jove! — A protestation with v-q is always affirmative; 
but jua may take either an affirmative or negative particle 
[vol fia Am, and oh jia Ala) : when ina, however, is alone, 
it is merely negative, fxa Am, no, truly not ; no, by Jove I 
far from it f 

2. But these and other particles are put in Greek to a variety 
of uses, which must be studied with the utmost attention, as 
they cannot be stated here. This is in particular the case with 
^eYeral particles, which formerly were called particula expletivce, 
though their use alone can be called an usus expletivus, and 
this too must not be misunderstood. There are in all languages 
particles, which serve only to complete the sense of a propo- 
sition, or obtain a certain harmonious fulness or redundance, 
yet never without their proper import, though they might be 
omitted, since that which they are to denote is often under- 
stood of itself. Greek particles of this kind require still greater 
caution to be judged correctly. Their complete and primitive 
signif. generally has only been weakened, and merely gives to 
a proposition a slight shade of meaning, which can only be felt 
through an intimate acquaintance with the language, but which 
may be greatly assisted by the knowledge of their fundamental 
signif. This is as follows : — 

7£, (enclitic,) properly at least (for which ^ovv is more generally 
used). It is also commonly employed, whenever a single 
object, or 2Lpart, is named relatively to the whole or greatest 
number. Hence it is so often annexed to l-^w, (k'ywye,) 
whereby one opposes one's self as it were to the rest of 
mankind : exactly, / for my part. Frequently it may be 
rendered certainly, indeed, Lat. certe. 
apa, (in the Epics ap and pa, the latter of which is enclitic,) 
always comes after other words % and signifies, 1.) most 
commonly consequently, 2.) where it appears to have no 
power, conformably to nature or good manners, Lat. ex or- 
dine, rite : hence it serves as a transition to a proposition, 
which was expected ; 3.) after ft, eav, and the like, by 
chance. 

^ If apa or ap' ovv here and there begins a proposition, it ought always to be 
converted into aga in prose, which in all such instances simply is a question sup- 
plying the place of an affirmation. See Heind. ad Plat. Gorg, 27. 



432 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

The interrogative particle aga, which always begins 
the sentence, is the Lat. num ^ 

TOL, (enchtic^) is properly an old dat. instead of t(^, and means 
therefore, certainly ; but these signif. are forgotten, and 
rotyapj roiydpTOL, roiyapovv, are strengthened expressions 
of tol: — Toivvv is used when an argument is continued, 
and so on, as if it were, I say further, but now. — Toi alone 
only serves to strengthen an affirmation. 

Kal TOL, and certainly, and truly, 2.) and yet, 3.) although. 

fji^vToi, to be sure '' , hence 2.) but indeed, however ; it is a more 
emphatic form for di. 

T apa, T af>, (see § 29. Ohs. 8.) with p.oets lipa, strengthened by 

TOL. 

^rj, properly at present, now (for which yjSrj is used) ; hence it 
serves in various ways to enliven a speech ; ays ^rj, come 
on then ; tl dri, what then ? — It also means forsooth, truly, 
and 

After the pronoun relatives, ogtlq ^t), ottov ^t) ^ who- 
soever it may be, wherever it may be, &c. ; or any one, I 
know not where, 
fxriv, (Doric fxav. Epic jmlv and /uav, is 1.) an affirmation, truly, 
indeed, 2.) but indeed, yet. Plat. Soph. 1. Kai julol doKu 
Oebg fiev ov^ajuiog uvai, Odog fxr]v. 
yl fXYiv, (Epic yl fxlv,) true, certainly ; hence it is also a more 
powerful §£, see Exc. 1. ad Aral. Kal /.177V, Lat. immo, 
yes, by all means I and opposed to a contradiction, it is the 
Latin atqui, and yet. 

After interrogatives following an interlocutor's nega- 
tion TTore fxriv ; when then ? Tig juriv ; who then ? (i. e. when, 
who else then ?) whence tl /ariv is as much as why not F 

rj fxriv, (Ionic and Epic ^ jllIv,) is the common formula 
of asseverations and protestations, sometimes with the 
indie, ri fjiriv tyu) 'iiraOov tovto, {I swear that I have suf- 
fered this,) sometimes with the infin. dependent on other 
verbs, as ojulvvjuil ri fxriv ^wg^lv {I faithfully promise to 
give) ; and also in the 3 pers. 'YTradi^aTo f/ juriv juiri cnrops'iv 

^ Attic poets, however, interchange the quantity, and use apa for therefore, and 
apa as an interrogative particle ; but its place in the proposition is the same. 

'^ This particle is derived from fjLtjv (Epic fiev) and rot, compare § 150, 1. 

^ They are generally written separately, but whenever they receive the addition 
of the strengthening ttote, (see § 80. 06s. 1. and § 116, 6.) they are most usually 
written as a single word. 



SYNTAX. 433 

avToijQ rpo<^i]Cj ^^ took it on himself, faithfully promised 
that they should not want food. 

ov juriv, 1.) yet not, 2.) a negative protestation, answer- 
ing to the affirmative rj ju^v : in a dependent proposition 

Orjv, (encliticj, peculiar to the Ion. and Dor. poetsj is also an 
affirmation, conveying pretty nearly the idea of / should 
think so ; hence it is used especially in an ironical and 
sarcastical sense ; ^ Orjv, ov Oi]v, even so, not so I should 
think, 
vv, vvv, short and enclitic, used only in the Ionic dialect and in 
poetry, 1.) properly the same with vvv, for which it is some- 
times used; 2.) for ovv, therefore, now ; 3.) like the English 
too, QvriTog di vv kol (tv rirv^m, thou too art born mortal, 
II. IT. 622. 
ttIq, (enclitic, and probably derived from irigi in the sense of 
very, § 147. Obs. 9.) gm/e;— hence wairE^ properly means 
entirely as — Kaiir^Q, though ever so much, i. e. although, in 
which sense we also have ttIq, alone. 
7ro7£j (enchticj) at any time ; used interrogatively, it expresses 
surprise ; Tig irore kcmv ovrog ; who can this be, who may 
this be ? 
TTov, (enclitic,) 1.) somewhere, anywhere; 2.) by chance, perhaps; 
3.) in conversing on putting indirect questions to found 
an argument on the affirmative answer of the interlocutor. 
See Ind. in Plat. Menon. in v. 

A777rou is the same as ttov, but more emphatical, and 
if a little irony is used so as to hint that the opposite is 
impossible, it is Si^irovdev. Demosth. Mid. 26. 'Earavat 
yap l^itjTai ^yittovObv avTU),for T should think that he will 
be alloived to stand there. 

§ 150. — Of some particular Locutions. 

ov jurjv aAAa, or ov fxivToi aXXa, (compare § 149, 2.) is properly 
yet no, but no ! rather — : but it commonly means merely 
yet^ however ; sometimes also rather. 

ov\ oTL and ohx ottojq. These two phrases are gene- 
rally considered as identical, while they rather are anti- 
thetical : the verb Xiyoj, or some such verb, must be 
supphed in both. When the phrase with on follows, the 

Ff 



43i A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

proposition is affirmative; Xen. Memor, 2, 9, 8, Kat ovx 
OTL juovoc 6 KpiTtjv Iv yiav^ia ^v, aWa koI ol (piXoi avrov, 
(where juovog belongs only to Kpirwv). Theophr. Ov^ 
on avi(f)V av, aXXa kol Evav^earepag kol KaWiovQ eiroir^aE^ it 
would not only have blown, but also, &c. Dio. Cass. 42. p. 
285. AavEiZojuEVOQ ovx ^''' "^^P^ '^^'^^ IdicjrCjv, aXXa /cat irapa 
tCov TToAfwvj not only by private persons, but also by cities. 
When this phrase is to introduce a negation, the negative 
must lie already in the proposition itself^ and may then 
be heightened by aXX' ov^e, Demosth. c, Timocr. 702. 
Ov\ OTL Tiov ovrujv a7r£(Tr£p?7jLtrjv av, aXX ovd^ av £?rjy. Thuc. 
2, 97. TavTTf 8£j, {Scytharum potentia,) a^vvara l^KjovaBai 
ovx OTL TO, ev Tyj ^vpMTrij, aXX' ouS' kv Ty ^Aala Wvog ev irpog 
av ov/c eaTiv, k. t. X. Whenever the negative is to be ex- 
pressed, ovx oTTcjQ is more usually employed, in which case 
oTTMQ, how, as, means that not, Demosth. c. Polycl. 1225. 
'H ^f yri ovx OTTwg tlvcl Kapirbv 7]VEyKEv, aXXa fcai to v^wp 
— £K tu)v (l)pEaT(i)v ItteXlttev, not only the earth bore no fruit, 
&c. Xenoph. Hellen. 5, 4, 34. 'E^i^aaKov tov ^v.fxov, wq ol 
AaKE^aiiuovioi ovxottwq TijULOjprjaaivTO, aXXa Ka\ liraivEdaiEv 
tov ^(podpiav, that the Spartans not only would punish, &c. 
2, 4, 14. Ovx oiT(x)Q adLKOvvTsg, aXX' ouS' lirLd-njuovvTEg, 
l^vya^EvofiEda, having not only done them no harm, but 
not having even entered their country, we were banished. 
OvKOvv, (i. e. ovK ovv, see above,) oirwg iiivi)(j9r}vaL av Tig 
ItoXji^ge — (pXavpov Ti, aXX' log ev b^daXfxoXg — (dacriXlwg — 
ffcacrroc ^ieksito ^. 

ovx o(7ov and ovx ^^^^ ^^^> ^^^ ^^^^ frequently, used in 
the same sense, the former for ovx otl : Thuc, at least, 
has it with an additional second ov, 4, 62. for the nega- 
tive, 01 /lev ovx o<TOV OVK i]}XvvavTO, otXX' ovS' sawOriaav. 
Ov;)( oToy is used for ovx ottw^J Polyb. Ovx ^^'^^^ uxpeXeiv 
^vvaiT av Tovg (piXovg, aXX ovd^ avTOvg awZ^LV. 

Whenever 6tl and oirtog are introduced with jLiri, viro- 
Xa(5r) rtc may be supplied, or they may be understood 
like the Latin ne dicam, and are thus stronger than the 



The example quoted by Viger 7, 10, 5. without mentioning whence it is taken, 
Ovx OTTO)^ Tovg TToXen'iovQ, ic. T. X. where ov^ ottujq is employed affirmatively for not 
only, unquestionably is not genuine ; and the passage of Athenaeus-with the negative 
ovx on, quoted by Budeeus, p. 911. without specifying where it stands, {Ovx *^''* 
»)/xwi' Tivd 7rpo(T(3\'s7rovreg, aXX ovde aXXtiXovg,) is of an unknown period. 



SYNTAX. 435 

preceding expressions, but both in a negative sense. 
Cyrop. 1, 3, 10. M?) ottwq oQ-XjEiaQai Iv pvdfxi^, ciXX ov^' 
opOovaOai t^vvaaOs, S, 2, 31. Ovk av iifiUQ clg^oXCoq Ip-ya- 
Zoifx^da, jurj on rriv tovt(i)v, aW ouS' av Trjv rijuerepav. 
Memo7\ 1, 6,11. ILaiTOLroyiLfiarLOv rj rriv olKiav ovdevl av 
jui] oTi TTpolsca doir]Q, a\X ovd' av eXaTTov rrig aE^iag Xa/Swv : 
all which connexions are easily supplied and explained. 

When juLTi on folio us, the expression is still more in- 
tensive, and is to be understood like the Latin ^ nedum/ 
much less, much more. Plato Crat. 427. Ao/cet ao\ paBtov 
EivaL ovTOJ Ta-)(p fiaOuv bnovv TTpajjua, /ULr) on Totrovrov o 
di) ^oke'l £v ToXg fxeyicTTOLg fxiyLdTov dvai. Ph(sdr. 240. '^A 
KaX Aoyti) kanv atcovuv ovk hTTm^Trlg, fii) on ^tj £f>yw. 
Xenoph. Hell. 2, 3, 35. Ovdl ttXuv, firj on avaiguaQai rovg 
avSpag dwarov rjy : — Lucian has ov\ oiriog in the same 
sense, Vial. Mort. 27, 5. OuS' ecrravai x^f^^'- ^^X ottwc 
(5aSi^Eiv l^vvaro. 

ovx on sometimes serves to introduce a seeming ob- 
jection, which is immediately after refuted, (commonly 
with aXXa,) not that — but ; when there is no refutation, 
ov\ on also signifies although : Heind. ad Plat. Lys. 
37. Protag. 66. 

on firj after negations means concept. 
TO §£, an elliptical expression, not easily supplied, 
which introduces a proposition opposed to w^hat has 
been stated before, nearly Uke the English as, however, 
but as yet^ Heind. ad Plat. Theaet. 37. Buttm. ad Me- 
non. 37. 

TO fJLri, more commonly to ju?) ov, with the infin. as 
much as wgte fxri, so that not, that not, Lat. ' quo minus, 
quin.' See Escc. 11. ad Demosth. Mid. 142. Compare 
also Tov iLi-n, § 148. Obs. 9. 
t\ frequently becomes a limiting or also generalising particle, 
' in some degree,' — ' in anything f hence ovti, iiy]Ti, not at 
all ; but these particles may be separated, ovTi^ tl tpya, 
//. a. 115. See about the tmesis with t)., {vtto ti,) § 147. 
Obs. 10. 
ILii]Ti ye, much less^ Lat. nedum, probably derived from ju?) oti. 
ov TTfpi, ex, gr. Ov TrepX tov TLfHi)pi](jaGdai, aXXa jcai — , to say no- 
thing of revenge, (i. e. revenge is out of the question,) but 
we will even — (Thuc. 4, 63). 

Ff 2 



436 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

vdov ov or ocTovov, (Lat. Hantumnonj') nearly, almost ; Tov fxi\- 
Aoyra kol oaovov Trapovra iroXejuiov, the war which is imminent 
and almost at hand, i. e. only Just so much is wanting, that 
we are not actually at war. 
o(Tov and olog with the infin. for wars, see § 143, 1, 3. 

ocTog, T}, ov, in Qavfiaarov oaov, and the hke, is the Lat. ' mirum 
quantum,^ ivonderfully much, i. e. a very great deal. It is 
used in the same way before or after superl. of words ex- 
pressive of a quantity ; TrXuara oaa, oaa TrXeiara, Lat. 
^quamplurima,' a great many. See § 151, 1, 5. 

o(ym -q/uiipaL, daily, (Plato Charm. 51. eictr.) and also oaog with 
any limitations of tim.e. The former is also written close 
together, and contracted oarjfjLepai. 

avO' u)v, (according to the rule of § 143, 5,) is used for avA Ikei- 
vwv a — ex. gr. AajSe tovto avO' wv t^ioKag fxoL, take this for 
that, which you have given to inc. But it is also used for 
avrl rovTOv on, for this, that, ILapiv aoX oTSa, av6^ ojv ^\6eg, 
I thank you for this, that you are come. 

£0' (J, is properly for ettX tovtco, o — , but commonly for etti tovtm 
(jjg — ; and as eirl with the dat, conveys the idea of a con- 
dition, l(f w means on condition that ; Ai^u) croX £^' (5 aiyji- 
aeig, 1 will tell it to you on condition that you he silent. 

l(f cjr£ is the same, (for lirX tovtm, wore,) but is more 
usually construed with the infin. : ex. gr. 'Yiipidr]Gav i(f 
wra avyypaipai vojuovg, they ivere chosen on condition that 
they should make laws. 

£ffT£, (not eg r£, for it is used instead of ig ote. Dor. toTE,) until, 
as long as — , § 139, c. 

olog, see above oGog. 

otog r£ (olo(Tr£,) means, in speaking of persons, able, — of things, 
possible ; Olog ri Igtl ttclvt airodd^ai, he is able to do any 
thing ; aXX ovx olovre tovto, but that is not possible. Com- 
pare § 143, 1, 2. 

oiov eiKog, as may be imagined, as may be supposed. 

ovdlv olov properly there is nothing like, (French, ^ il n'y a rien 
de let,') whence for instance, OvEev olov aKovaai tojv Xojmv 
avTov, i. e. the best thing we can do is to hear him, there is 
nothing like hearing him. 

aXXo is used negatively or interrogatively to strengthen an affij'- 
mative proposition, in Avhich case there generally is a verb 
omitted, Cyrop. 1, 4, 24. 'EfcfTyoe ov^lv aWo i) Tovg TreTrroj- 



SYNTAX. 437 

KOTag TTepieXai)v(i)v Wearo. Memor. Socr. 2, S, 17. Tt yap aXXo 
i) KivSvvtvcreLQ kiridH^ai, av jutv ^(pj^crroc — ^Ivai, k. t. A. When 
aXXo is spelled with an apostrophus in this connexion^ it 
commonly loses its accent: Plato Apol. p. 20. At' ovdlv 
aW i) dta Gocpiav tlvu. tovto to ovofia £(T^rj/ca, Phcedr. 231. 
*'i2oT£ ov^lv VTroXdirsTat a\X rj iroitlv iTQod\)}iwQ o, tl av, k.t.X. 
Menon. 9. "On ov^lv a\X rj eiriTaTreig, because you do 
nothing but command, ^schin. c. Tim. "Qare juri^ev aXX rj 
rag ala-)(i)vag avrw TTEpislvai. This accentuation gives to 
aXX' the appearance of the abbreviated aXXa : hence it 
frequently is accented aW in such instances. 

To these phrases belongs also the interrogative ex- 
pression aXXo tl: Plato Gorg. 81. El juev yap rvyxavEi 
ravTa aXrjOri ovra, a \iyug, aXXo tl i) -^fiCjv 6 (5iog avaTE- 
Tpaiifiivog av ui] ; if this were true, would not our life be 
destroyed ? The particle i) is also frequently omitted in 
this interrogative : Plato Rep. 369, "AXXo ti yewpyoc fJLev 
ac? 6 §£ otKo^o/ioc ; is not one a husbandman, a?id the 
other a builder ? 

These connexions gave rise to aXX' r\ being used for 

the Latin ' nisi^ unless, but except, Aristoph. Ran. 

1105. Oufc i]TrLaTavT aXX rj fiaZ,av KaXiaai kol pvTnraiTaX 

HTTuv. But in most cases there is an abbreviation of 

the thought before this aXX rj^ which it is impossible to 

supply by words; Isaeus de Aristarch. Hered. 261. 'O 

vofiog ovK la tCjv Trig fTTiJcX/^jOou KvpLOV slvai, aXX'rj Tovg 

Tral^ag — KpaTuv twv \pY]fiaT(i)v. Plato Ph(jedr. 89. Tivog 

pXv ovv EVBKa Kuv Tig, ojg htthv, ^Mt], aXX rj tCov toiovtwv 

r}^ov(l)v EveKa ; See also Aristoph. Acha?^. 11 12 ^\ 

TaXXa for TO. aXXa, in other respects, otherwise, ex. gr. "Earfv 

aTTaig, TaXXa ev^aipovd, he is childless, in other respects he 

is happy. Hence Ta de aXXa — and in the next proposition 

Ka\, as in general— so in particular, Ta re aXXa ei/^at/xova, 

/cat Traldag e\ei icaTriKoovg avTw, (compare tca\ and tI in the 

preceding Section,) whence the elliptical phrase to. te aXXa 

^0 This evidently shows the affinity between all the above-mentioned phrases. 
The accent, according to general custom, should therefore remain unchanged on 
dW. But the expression dW r) for nisi is too abrupt, particularly as there are pas- 
sages, in which the word aXXoe is already used once in what went before, so that the 
ellipsis before dW rj is not clear; Plato Aiyol. p. 34, T'lva dWov \6yov ixovai jSorj- 
OovvTSQ EjLtot, dW ri 6p96v re koI diKawv; even the ancient grammarians seem to have 
derived this dW rj fx'om dWd. As it here loses the accent, the latter is commonly 
also omitted in the other above-mentioned phrases, which are connected with it. 



438 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

KaX — properly among others, but it may always be rendered 
by in particular. 

aXXiog TE KOL, also in particular, especially ; and has the same 
origin as the preceding. 

aiK^oTEQov, used by poets adverbially, (or elliptic ally,) and means 
both, as well — as, as — as ; ydxraro 3' alvwg ^Ajm^oTEpov vikyiq 
T£ KaX ty\EOQ, o ^vviaE,Ev. In prose it is the same when the 
accus. ajuL(l)6Tepa unites two preceding modifications, ex- 
pressed in a different case, Am^tpovrec v Goc^iia rj kuXXel rj 
aij.(p6T£pa, (Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 3.) and also in another 
corresponding instance, QarEQa, Plato de LL. 6. p. 765. 
^ "Ecrro) tteWlov yvijcnov Trarrjo juaXidra ulv vUmv /cat Ovyaripivv, 

■ £1 §£ fxi), Oarepa, if not yet one of the two. 

ravTo Tovro, TovvavTiov, to Xeyofievov, and similar intercalations, 
see § 131. 0^5.6. 

ovTOQ,avTr}, as exclamation, see § 76. Obs, 3. 

Ka\ Tavra, and that too ; Tr\\LKavTr\v TrapOivov kv KE(l)aXy WpEipag, 
KoX ravra evoTrXop, Such a virgin (Pallas) have you had in 
your head, and that too armed I 

TovTo p.\v, rovTo dl, is often used adverbially. See § 128. Obs. 4. 

avT(f, avTyj, omitting ahv, see § 134. Obs. 7. 

avTo SeiE^el, avTo (rnfiavEl, the thing will show it, the deed will 
prove it* 

TTpo Tovy better Trporov, formerly, ere this, [irph tovtov or ekeivov 
rov xpovov,) see ad Flat, Alcib. I, 14. 

Tov XoLTTov, [sc. xp^^^^s) hereafter, (compare § 132, 6, 4.) — to 
XotTTov or merely Xolttov, henceforth. 

TToXXov dEl, impersonal, ^ far from/ (French, it s'enfaut de beau- 
coup ;) personal, iroXXov ^Ed), I am far from, ex. gr. XkyEiv 
Touro (see the Note to § 151^ 1, 7). ttoXXou ^eIv, see § 141. 
Obs. 5. 

The contrary is fxiKpov or oXiyov BeT, ^eu), StTv, nearly, 
very near, Lat. ^ non multum abest quin/ wanting but 
little, almost ; bXiyov ^ico eItteIv, I had almost said, was 
very near saying. Frequently oXiyov or juiKpov alone is 
used in this sense. 

TTEpl TToXXov ECTTL fioi, OY TTEpl TToXXov 7roiovf.iai OX rjyovfiai, I make 
much of, value highly, it is of importance to me, I ivish very 
much ; irEpi irXEiovog, iTEpl ttXeigtov is the same, and TTEpl 
luiKpov, &c. the contrary. 

fxaXXov Se, when alone, is always to be rendered ' or rather.' 



SYNTAX. 439 

fxaXiG-a fxlv, (in reference to h §£ /.iri coming afterj it ivould be 
bestjif possible, properly indeed; KaTayiyvu)(7ic£Te avrov fxd- 
Xi<Tra juev Oavarov, d dl /ui), deicpvyiav, it would be best to 
condemn him to death, but if not, to a perpetual exile. 

When iiakiGTa is used interrogatively, requiring a 
more definite or precise answer^ it has nearly the same 
meaning : Trdo-oi fidXiara ; how many then exactly ? — With 
numerals it denotes their probable amount, ('Ey Ts^aGagd- 
KQvra juaXiGTa rjfiepaig,) affirmatively indeed, {77iost assur- 
edly, certainly,) speaking from conviction, yet so as to 
give to understand that the matter is not absolutely, 
positively certain : hence ttti, ttov, and the like, are fre- 
quently added. See Ind. ad Plat, Menon. in v. WesseL 
ad Herod. 8, 65. 
TToj/uLaXa, originally, hoio so^^ P hence, by no means. 
d\y]QiQ, (accented in this way,) ironically, indeed! is it so? — do 

you think so ? Lat. itane ? Brunck ad ArHstoph. Ran. 840. 
io(peXov, (non-Attic o^eXov,) properly / ought ; hence it denotes 
a ivish, partly alone ; MtJttot' w^eXov Troietv^ had I but never 
done it I and partly with ojg or eWe, d yap, (O that ! woidd 
to Heaven! Lat. ^utinam;^) 'Q,q lorpeXsg Trapdvai, that 
thou hadst been present ; d yap wcjyiXov Oavdv, that 
I had died ! It is only with later writers that it is an i?i~ 
declinable interjection. 
djuiXei, do not mind ; hence 1.) an asseveration, unquestionably, 
no doubt, tridy ; 2.) a confirmation of a more general pro- 
position by a particular one, and itideed — . 
oioda, construed with the imper. and the pronoun relative, see 

§ 139, B. Obs. 3. 
£OTf, comes before pronouns relative of all kinds : iaTiv ore, Lat. 
^ est cum,' i. e. sometimes : ianv og, Lat. ^ est qui,' i. e. some 
one. It is even used in this way before 2i pi. ; Kai iGTiv 
at avTwv htTpdxjKovTo, and some of them were wounded ; 
"EoTtv oTc ov\ov-big t^o^£v,to some it did not appear so, (but 
we may also say d(jiv oL) Anab. 1, 5, 7. "^Hv rwv araO/uiujv, 
ovg irdvv /maKpovg i]\avvev, he made some of these halting 
stations very long. This phrase was afterwards con- 
sidered as a single word, and thus interwoven in the 



^* It is far more natural to suppose this form derived from ttwq jxaXa than to 
deiive it with grammarians from tlie rather uncommon Doric ttw for TroBtv. 



440 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

speech ; Et yap 6 Tpoirog tWiv oig ^vaap^GTal, for if the 
manner displeases some ; KXiirTeiv ^£ e^fjicfv iartv a, but he 
allowed them to steal some things (Xenoph. Laced. 2, 7). 
OvcTTTEp aSov Iegtiv oTTovy wMch I have seen somewhere. — And 
as an interrogative," E(7tlv oixrrivag avOptLirovg r^OavjuaKag 
£7rt (Tocpiq. ; have you ever admired any man for his wisdom ? 
Xenoph.' Mem. 1, 4, 2. 

ovK tariv oTru}Q,it is impossible, inconceivable; 'H ^iXoirpayiaoavvr], 
v^' rig OVK i(TTLv oiTwg y]av\Lav (j\r](jH, the great attention to 
business, which will not let him remain quiet. Compare 
about v(f 7ig, § 147. Obs. 3. 

i(TTiv, e^eariv, evEari^ Trapeari 7rparr£iv, (with the dat. of the person, 
or in general^) all signify, it is allowed, in one's power. 
But tvecTTL alludes to physical power, it is possible, l^^ariv 
to the moral power, it is lawful ; Igti is between the two, 
and means indefinitely it will do, it may be done ; TrapEo-rtv 
the same, only that it conveys the additional idea oi faci- 
lity, ^ it is at hand, may be done without ceremony, any 
difficulty^ Whenever \v^(jtiv and I^^gti are used one for 
the other, it is merely from rhetorical motives, just as we 
say by way of strengthening the expression, / cannot 
possibly do it, instead of dare not or may not do it ; and 
/ am allowed to do it, may do it. 

log tvi. In this expression tvi, (according to § 117, 3, 2.) is 
used for IvzaTi, it is possible; hence before superl, wc tvi 
fxaXiGTa, as far as it is any way possible. 

ujg iirog direXv, so to speak, see § 140. Obs. 5. 

wg (TvveXovTi {sc. Xoyio) elireiv, also without wg, (compare § 140. 
Obs. 5.) and simply <tvve\6vti without aiiruv, to be short. 

Iv roig. When these words come before a superl., they mean 
the Latin ^omnium,' of all; 'Ei^ rolg irpwTOL "Kapnaav ol 'AOr}- 
vaioi, the Athenians were there the first of all ; Tovto lyoj 
Iv Tolg jSapvTaTa av IviyKaifii, I should be the greatest suf- 
ferer of all. — To resolve this expression we must supply 
after Iv rolg a participle suggested by the sequel of the 
proposition, here in the first instance Iv rolg TragovaLv, in 
the second Iv rolg ptapiiog (pEpovmv avro. But when the 
superl. is an adverb as here in the second instance, we 
must be careful not to construe thus, 'Eyoj tovto av kviyKaijuL 
kv ToXg (dapvraTa (pipovaiv avTo, which would weaken the 
idea, (/ should be one of those, who suffer the most^) and 



SYNTAX. 441 

is incorrect, as is evident from the instances where this 
construction is inadmissible, as in ev toIq irpwroi. — This Iv 
Tolg is used even before nouns fern. ; Thuc. 'Ev To7g TrXuaTat 
vrieg irap avrolg lyi:VOVTO, and H aracig Iv tolq Trpwrt] 
eyevETo. 

01 aficj)!, or oi irepl, with an accus. ; ot a^u^t "Avvrov, commonly 
means not only those who tvere about or with him, but, 
Anytus with his followers, party ^ &c. ; ol a/mcpX QaXriv, 
Thales and other wise men of his time (Plato Hipp. Maj. 2). 
Attic writers employ this indefinite expression, even when 
they chiefly allude to only one individual, leaving it at the 
same time for some reason undecided and in the dark, 
whether they mean that individual alone. Thus oi a//0t 
EvOvcppova, (Plato Crat, 36.) means only Euthyphro, but 
hints at the same time that there may be others of his 
opinion and party : ol aixcfi QEjuiaroKXia, {Menon. towards 
the end,) like the French, ' les Themistocle f again, ol Trcpt 
Y^UpbiTra, (Xen. Memor. 3, 5^ 10.) Cecrops only, but the 
obscurity of the old tradition seems to be hinted at. 

£i lir) dia, with the accus., literally if not for, had it not been for ; 
KaX airiOaviv av el iLir) Sia tov Kvva, he would have perished, 
had it not been for his dog. See also § 139. Obs. 4. 

fiETa'^v^ among, between. This particle commonly stands as ad^ 
verb before a participle in this manner : pEia^v TrepiirarCov, 
while walking ; iuieTaK,v dEiirvovvTa IcpovBvaEv avrov, he killed 
him while he was at supper (Lat. inter ambulandum, inter 
coenandum). 

tvLKa, often means as far as concerns ; " Avzv tov rjXiov, 'ivtKa 
TMV krigiov aaTptJv, vv^ av riv aei, without the sun it would 
alivays be night, as far as the other constellations are con- 
cerned. Hence apyvpiov tv^Ka, as far as money will do it ; 
TovTov ye eveica, if it be nothing else, if it only depends on 
that, if that be all (Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 14). 

ctjua, and in the second part of the proposition kol, as soon as ; 
"Ajua aKTf\K.6afiLv tl koX rpnqpap^ovg KaOlaTajuev, as soon as we 
hear any thing (of the enemy), ive shall appoint the com- 
manders of the ships. It is also employed like nera^v, ex.gr. 
"Ajua TavT uttwv avEfrrr], having said this he rose. 

TToXXaKig, after some particles like el, firi, means the Latin ^ forte,' 
by chance, as ivill happen. Heind. ad Plat, Phced. 11. 
Ind. ad Plat, Menon, cet. 



142 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

6 ad. When this expression comes before a participle, aal 
always means every time ; 6 ad ij^iKtJinivoQ, who has every 
time {ivhenever the opportunity occurred) been wronged; 
6 ad apxyyv, the then Archon. The same with substantives 
and relative pronouns. 

(p^ov'^oQ is construed as a verb, dvai, being omitted, he is gone, 
vanished away ; <PpovdoQ yap 6 avrip, for the man is gone, 
(()povda iravra, it is all over (compare § 129. Obs. 7). 

ap^ajULBvogi ew. gr. cltto gov apE,aiuL£vog, a7id you above all. In 
this phrase the participle always joins the principal object 
in question ; 'Eoriy ogtiq ^AOrjvaiwv airo gov ap^ajuisvogy 
juaXXov di^aLT av dovXog yeviaQai jj deairoTrig ; is there any 
one among the Athenians, and you above all, who would 
rather be a slave than a master? wavrEg ovtol airb tCjv 
ripo)(x)v ap^afxevoi ovdEig ttujttote tipE^ev adiKLaV' See Ind. ad 
Menon. &c. in v. Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 60. 

IueXXeiv, see § 137. Obs, 11. Out of this natural signif. of 
fiiWeiv arise two other meanings, which must not be con- 
founded, 1.) the supposititious conjectural meaning, Hom. 
ovTh) TTov All juleWbl — (jiiXov eivai, consequently it probably 
will please Jove ; 2.) the meaning of to delay, postpone, 
leave to futurity, ri S' ov fxiWei ; tl S' ovk EfxEXXe ; why 
should he not ? i. e. most certainly he will. But the meaning 
is the same without the negative, tl iusXXel ; why not ? 
i. e. to be sure, by all means. Heind. ad Plat. Hipp. 
Maj. 17. 

tpxeaOaL, Uvai, with the participle of the fut. : to be going to, to 
be on the point to ; "Oirep ^a Epu)v, ivhat I was going to say 
(French, ^ ce que fallois dire^). 

WiXeLv, (never OeXeiv.) before an infin. must very often be con- 
sidered as an adverb with a finite verb, ^ spontaneously/ 
* willingly ;' dtopd&OaL lOeXovm, they freely bestow gifts 
(Xenoph. Hier. 7, 9). Kvpu) "lgixev WeXriaavTag TraWeGOaL 
Tovg jdEv, Cyrop. 1, 1, 3, where the part, (according to 
§ 144, 4. b.) is used merely because of iGjuev. "Icr^fv on 
y]QiXr\Gav iTEiOEGQai, that they obeyed willingly, 

(pOavELv, to come before, prevent, anticipate. This verb, inde- 
pendently of its proper signif., is used in three different 
senses. 

1.) In a positive sense with the participle of the prin- 
cipal verb (§ 144. Obs. 8.) it means to do a thing sooner 



SYNTAX. 413 

than another i or before another occurrence can take place ; 
t(j)Oa(Ta avTov irapeXOwv, I arrived before him, before he 
did ar7ive ; £^0>]y awiibv, I had gone aivay before. Hence 
it is also used to express celerity ; Herod. 3, 78. ^OavsL 

2.) In a negative sense also with the part., and con- 
nected with another proposition by jcai, it means hardly, 
no sooner — than — Ovk e^^rj^uEy IXOovt^q koL vocrotg kX{](p- 
i)i]p.^v, (Isocr.) we were no sooner arrived than we were 
attacked by diseases ; Ou/c tcpOriaav vf-iag Kara^ovkojaajue- 
voi KOI TrpwTOV avTov (pvyrjv Kariyvu^aav, (Isocr.) they no 
sooner had subjugated you than he ivas the first ivhom 
they condemned to exile. Compare above ap.a. 

3.) In the negative sense with the part., (or the part. 
being mentally supplied from the context,) but without 
any necessary further connexion, it means to be ready, 
not to fail, which imparts to the verb in the part, an 
idea of unavoidableness and rapidity. (pOavetv in this 
sense occurs only in the opt. with av ^^, and that a.) in- 
stead of the imper. ovk av ^Qavoig Xiytov, do not tarry, 
hesitate telling to us, i. e. tell to us immediately, b.) as a 
sure foretelling, promise, &c. Ovk av (pOavoiini, (the 
answer to a request,) I will not fail, am ready; Ovic av 
(pQavoL a7roOv{](JK(i)Vi he tvill not escape death, will not fail 
being killed, is sure to be killed : El ovv fjii) Tifiwp{]ar£(jO£ 
TOVTOvg, OVK av (pOavoi to ttXyiOoq tovtoiq roXg Oripioig 
SovXevov, if you do not punish than, the multitude will 
infallibly become the slaves of these brutes. — It is as ob- 
vious as it is striking that this negative sense is the same 
with the f^Yst positive or affirmative one. To explain this 
contradiction, we must assume that ovk av rpOdvoig is 
properly an interrogative formula instead of a direct 
imper. {will you not immediately — .^) and that it gradually 
lost its interrogative power in familiar intercourse. Hence 
the ov comes after in poetry ; Eurip. Heracl. 721. c^Qdvoifj 
S' av ov, — And as soon as ovk av (l)Odvoig passed for a 
direct imper. it was very natural for the people to begin 
to say in the same sense, ovk av (l>ddvoifxi, and oujc av 



12 The only instance which Stephanus adduces without an opt. is the second 
above suh 2. garbled. 



4J4 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

(p9dvoi. Thus the meaning was unquestionably altered 
in practice ; but all non-interrogative sentences beginning 
with ovKovv are in the same predicament : for just as 
ovKovv air^ifii is the same with cnrHjxL ovv, so is ov/c av 
(pOdvoijui itolCjv identical with ^ddvoiii av Trotwv. 
ilvai. This infin. seems to be used redundantly by Attic 
wTiters in some expressions, especially in Ikwv uvai, (which 
probably w^as a complete phrase originally, so that I am 
free to act,) i.e. ivillingly^ ofone^s own accord, &c. ; Ouk av 
tKwv elvat ip£vdoLiLLr}Vj I ivill not intentionally tell an untruth. 
The uvat in to vvv uvai, for the present, is different : 
TO r{]fiepov elvat ^pridoimeO' avrw, to-day at least we ivill 
make use of him. (See about all the formulce belonging 
hither, Reiz ad Viger. n. 178. ed. Herm.) 
'ix^iv, with an adverb, means to be circumstanced, but may gene- 
rally be rendered to be ; KaXCog 'ix^h it is good, it isivell; tog 
alx^, as he ivas {ex. gr. undressed). It is often used with a 
definite gen. ; wg a^^ }iop(^rig, [in shape or size,) a^g raxovg 
HXovTo, they followed as quickly as they could, see § 132, 
6, 1. It is the same before j!;re^. 'AjU^i rqv KCLfxivov 'ix^L ra 
TToXXa, he is mostly to be found near the stove ; ot otju^j yr\v 
£;)(ovr£c, husbandmen; Hvdojievoi rov Trepi to lqov s^^^ovra 
vo/uLov, the laio concerning the temple, Herod. 2, 113. — Poets 
sometimes employ this verb in the same ^vay before adj. 
and pronouns ; t^j^ei TavTov, it is all one, all the same, Eur. 
Or. 308. Ix ^«^^Xo?5 ^^^- '550. 

Sometimes ex^iv makes an emphatical circumlocution 

with the part, of the prcBterite; liaKai Oavfidaag a'xw, 

(for OavjuLaZto,) I have long been ivondering at, Soph. El. 

590. Tovg iralSag h(3aXova ex^ig, you have rejected your 

children; Plato ^/c. II. 5. ^d£fXr/0or£c ^'x^i^o'i- SeeValck. 

ad Phoen. 712. Herm. ad Viger. n. 183. 

s'xwv is added to some verbs like Xrjoav, ^Xvaouv, iraiZ^iv, in 

the 2 pers. to make a good-humoured observation ; as, you 

are joking! [iraiZ^Lgix'^'^i) you trifle ! (Ar^pac e'xwv.) The 

origin of this expression may be traced to the interrogative, 

TL £xtt>v diaTpiPsLg; ivhat makes you loiter? Compare 

Ruhnk. ad Tim. 257. Brunck ad Ar^istoph. Thesm. 473. 

Herm. ad Viger. n. 228. 

Ti iraOwv and tl fiaOujv, are both angry interpellations instead 

of the weaker tl alone : why ? why then ? The former 



SYNTAX. 445 

may be accounted for from Arlstoph., where we have 
OvTOQ, ri wdhx^iQ ; you yonder ivhat befalls you, ivhat is 
the matter with you ? iVgain, Ti iraOwv iX^vOipovg tvtttuq ; 
what business have you to strike free-men ? The expres- 
sion seems to have been originally directed to check ebul- 
litions of passion, bordering on madness. The second ex- 
pression, which is analogous to it, is more ironical : tl 
fiaOdtv; — lohat have you learned? what has got into your 
head? where have you learned that? (See Wolf ad De- 
mosth. Lept. 348.) And just as the positive s'x^^ comes 
from the interrogative ri ix^'^^ ^^ ^^ juaOwv also used in 
positive sentences, but only with on, Plato Apol. 26. Tt 
dE,i6g elfjLi airorXaai, on fiaOojv kv rw j3i(^ ovx r]<yvxLav u^ov ; 
here fiaOwv distinctly conveys the idea of determinate in- 
tention, What penalty am I deserving for having absolutely 
enjoyed no tranquillity in my life ? If the object, which is 
wanting with fxaBwv, were to be supplied, it might be, "On 
juaOijjv ovK otS' o, n, r](7v\iav oi/zc ei)(ov. Not that the com- 
plete idea of fiaOMv, such as we have just developed it, 
was in the mind of every speaker who used the expres- 
sion ; this or something similar only gave rise to it, and 
on fiaQojv became a more passionate on. Compare the 
remaining passages in Heind. ad Plat. Euthyd. 30. Com- 
pare also in Herod. 3, 119. Tiya t^ouo-a yv(l)iir\v — u\zv, 
K. T. X., which is nothing but a gentler tl fxaOovcra, how do 
you come to think so ^^ ? 
(pEpijjv also appears redundant in some expressions, but always 
denotes a vehemence of purpose, not altogether free from 
blame ; 'Y7rt(5aXev ^avrbv (j)epu}v Qr]j3aioig, he put himself 
(rashly) into the power of the Thebans (^schin. 482) ; 
Et^ Tovro (pipwv Trepdarrjae to. irpdjfxaTa, he has (irresistibly) 

^2 As it is obvious that the thi'ee upbraiding expressions, ti e'xojv, TraOojVj 
fxaOiov, are essentially the same, and must be resolved in the same manner, the 
most natural explanation of on fiaOojv is that, which, without stripping on of its 
connective nature, treats ytaQHov, when considered alone, in the same way as exaiv 
alone. This is the reason why I cannot alter my statement, notwithstanding all 
which has been since said of this expression, and which 1 have duly weighed. 
Were I to make any alteration, it would be simply this, that 1 would no longer 
attempt to fill the chasm after on fxa9<hv, but should barely observe that in such 
phrases as ti e^wv 8iaTpij3eig ; ti jjiaOojv 7rpo(Tkypa\pag tovto ; nothing was thought 
of but the moral power of the participle, and no particular regard paid to the 
grammatical connexion, so that the same turn of expression was adopted in other 
combinations, in which it is not exactly grammatical, but to which the same energy 
was to be imparted, which distinguishes those interrogative expressions. Compare 
Hermann ad Ar. Nuh. p. xlvi. sqq. 



41G A GHEEK GRAMMAR. 

brought affairs to that point (474). Compare Herm. ad 
Viger. n. 228. 

§ 151. — Some peculiar Constructions, 
I. Attraction. 

1. Though we have seen the two principal cases of attraction 
above, § 142, 143, it yet deserves to be considered here under 
one general point of view; for those two cases, and a few 
others in single instances, have evidently a common principle. 
An elegant conciseness was what Attic writers chiefly aimed 
at ; to this they frequently sacrificed the strictly logical cor- 
rectness. They studied, as much as possible, not only to state 
successively two connected propositions, but also to concentrate 
both into one. Hence their frequent use oi participles even in 
cases where the nature of the proposition seems to require a 
different construction. 

2. But participles could not be introduced every where ; it 
was equally necessary to resort to the construction with the 
pronoun relative, which consists of two successive propositions. 
To give to these the appearance of one proposition, the pronoun 
of the second was made a common pronoun by annexing it in 
form to the first, whilst it naturally belonged to the second 
proposition ; MsraSiSw^ rov ctitov ovirap avTog t'x^^^' ^^^ S^^^' 
ovTrep makes the whole second proposition a kind of adj, to 
(TLTov, and it is merely giving way to our habit, when we sepa- 
rate by a comma propositions which the Greek writers so visibly 
studied to combine into one. 

3. Again, whenever the subject of the vifin. is already stated 
with the preceding verb, it produces a connexion in the sense, 
which the Greek v^riters wished to render sensible also in the 
form ; they therefore merged, as it were, both verbs into one, 
compounded for the thought, {vTriaxero woirjcrHv, e^egti yevia- 
6ai,) and by letting all which belonged to the subject of the 
infin. be attracted by the subject of the first verb, they effected 
the appearance of a single proposition, (6 avrip vireax^ro ttol- 
7}(jEiv TOVTo avTOQ, — %%EaTL fioi jEviaOai Ev^aijuovi,) which with 
similar absurdity is parted by a comma. 

4. When this principle of attraction is admitted, it will be 
found that there are many other phrases dependent on it, of 
w^hich we will notice the most important, and first of all the 



SYNTAX. 447 

instances where the first coming word is attracted by the fol- 
lowing pronoun relative ; Xenoph. Ven. 1,10. MeXiaypog §£ rag 
TLfjiag^ ag tXa[5£, (fyavepai : the proposition here is, al TLfiai, ag 
M. eXaps, (l)av£pai, {elaLv^) but the premising of one subject, 
(M. §£,) which the contrast renders necessary, is the cause that 
the other subject, attracted by the pronoun relative ag, is now 
put in the accus. — Plato Menon, 36. "E-)(^£ig uTruv aXXov otovovv 
TrpdyjULaTog, ov ol (pacTKOvreg diBauKaXoL elvm ofioXoyovvTai ovk 
EWiaracyOaL ro Trpayfia ; here we shoidd have, exsig dirdv aXXo 
oTiovv wpayiia, ov, k. r. X., can you name any one thing of ivhich 
the professed teachers are generally acknowledged not to under- 
stand it ? But the pronoun relative ov converts all the preceding 
accus. along with it into gen. (See also ad Plat. Menon.^l. 
Heind. ad Plat, Lys. 40.) The ear of the Greeks had accus- 
tomed itself to this neglect of the true construction by instances, 
where it is merely a pronoun or a general idea like aXXog or 
tr^pog, that comes before the pronoun relative, and where the 
attraction consequently is more sensibly felt, Xenoph. Hier, 
7, 2. Taura i:oiovai rvpavvoig kol aXXov ovriva tijulwcji, where 
instead of aXXov we should have the dat.^ and to every one else, 
Demosth. pro Cor. 230. 'ErtjOti) S' 6rtt) kqkov n dMcrojuiev Zyithv, 
i. e. er^pov Se Z,i]tuv, otm. — These instances, it is true, might 
also be explained by a slight inversion, Znruv, orbj iript^ kukov 

TL ^WaOjlEV, TTOiOVGL TVpOLVVOig KOI {klcddT^),) OVTlVa aXXov TlfjlU)- 

GLv, but the analogy of the other instances makes us adhere to 
the attraction, especially those in which -rrag is the attracted 
word ; Xenoph. Hell. 1, 4, 2. AaKeEaijuovioL irdvrojv Sjv ^iovrai 
TTiTTpayoTEg iWiv. This could not be explained by any inversion 
without producing the most unnatural harshness, and the at- 
traction, A. TreTTpayoTEg den TrdvTa ojv ^iovrat, is perfectly clear. 
— To the same kind of attraction belongs also the expression, 
ovdevX oT(i) ov, quoted above, § 148. Obs. 8. — Attraction like- 
wise operates on adverbs by confounding the correlatives of the 
different series, (§ 116.) Plato Criton.4. UoXXaxov jilv ydp koa 
dXXoae OTTOL av a<piKrj, ay air y] a overt az, for TToXXa^ov — dXXayov, 
oTToi — , or 7roXXa\ov — ottol aXXoae av cKpiKrj. 

5. Thus it is obvious that all phrases, in which an expres- 
sion of surprise and exaltation seems strengthened by an ap- 
pended pronoun relative can be explained only as attractions. 
When (according to § 150.) we find, QavfxacrTov oaov Trpovyd)- 
pr}(7E, this must be considered as if it were OavfiaaTov {kdnv,) 



448 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

ocrov TrpovxdfprjGsv, it is astonishing how far he has advanced. 
But if the pronoun relative be in another form, the preceding 
word passes over to the same form ; as, for instance, the neuter 
Oavfiaarov becomes fern., QavfiaaTri oar] ri irpo\(l)py)<nQ avrov^ 
and the proposition may be inverted, "^Hv Se 17 7rpoxw^»?<Ttc awrou 
Oavfiaarri oar}, and thus the same form was adopted in other 
phrases which are not so easily resolved or are incapable of 
being resolved; 'AXX' ^v TTEpl avTov 6)(Xoq vTTsp^vrig oaog 
(Aristoph. Plut. 750). — "E^wkev avrw irXuara oaa, and the like. 
— But if the adverb djg is the relative, the same adj. assume the 
adverbial form ; QavfidaLov (lariv) mq aOXiog yiyovs, becomes 
6avjua(Tiii)g ojg aOXiog yiyovev, and in tha same way uTTfjO^uojc dig, 
and the like. This is confirmed by the unaltered form really 
occurring, Herod. 3, 113. 'AiroZeL — OeaTreaLov cog ri^v. 

6. There is another kind of attraction, when to such words 
as olda, cLKovii), Xiyto, if they be not followed by an accus. with 
the infin., the subject of the following verb is joined as object 
in the accus. 07da ynv, ottocty] fo-rt, instead of olda, oTrocrrj earl 
yri, I know how great the earth is, Aristoph. Pac. 603. Et 
jSouXfo-^' cLKOvaai rJ7vS', oTZtog airajXtro, for atcovaai, oirivg 7]ds 
aTTwXtro : see also .an instance above, § 138. Obs. and ad Plat. 
Menon. 27, and in another oblique case in Thuc. 1, 59. TjXOe ?j 
dyysXia tCjv ttoAewv, oti dcpecTTCKTiv. — This attraction is very 
different from those mentioned above, since there are actually 
two propositions, and we only have, instead of the casus of the 
one, which is in its natural connexion, a new casus, which must 
be mentally supplied with the first word. Yet yri is evidently 
attracted by olSa, and thus two propositions, w^hich were merely 
in juxta-position, become as it were interwoven, so as to be 
nearly one proposition, especially when they are placed in the 
following order, Friv oTroo-rj eotiv el^ivai, Xenoph. to know how 
great the earth is ; tovtov ovF el yiyovev ydeiv, Demosth. Mid, 
' of him, I did not even know that he existed.' 

7. It is likewise an attraction when certain adj. with IcttIv, 
instead of being in the neuter, also receive the subject of the 
following verb as their subject. This is most striking wdth 
ciKaiog : for AiKaiov iariv Ifxi tovto TrpdrrHv, becomes ^iKaiog 
dfjiL TOVTO TrgcLTTuv [I am just in doing this, for, it is just, it is right 
for me to do so) ; Demosth. pro Cor. Tovtov tyjv ahiav ovTog 
Igtl SiKmog ex^iv, it is just that the blame should fall on him. 
Cyrop. 4, 1, 20. — AtKotoc a dvTixapiZeaOaL -n/Mv, it is just that 



SYNTAX. 449 

you should do us a favour in turn. The case is the same with 
a^iog, 5j 4>, 19. "A^tot ye julevtoi Itr/zev tov yeyevrjiuivov irpayfiaroQ 
TovTovy {of a mishap occasioned by imprudence,) airoXavGai tl 
ayaObv, to fiaOeiv, k, t. X. not we deserve, but a^iov kariv, it is 
proper^. Adj. Hke ^riXog, (j)av£pog, have in that case the follow- 
ing verb in the part., Demosth. Mid. 9. "Earn §£ keTvo, ovk 
adrjXoQ epcjv, for ovk adr}\6v lartv, avTov Ipeiv Iviuvo, it is evident 
that he will say what follows, or also with otl. See Sturz's 
Lex. Xenoph. in Sr)Aoc, P' 660. b. extr. In order to form but 
one proposition in all these instances, the subject of the prin- 
cipal proposition attracts the common adj. 

8. There is lastly an attraction, when a relation belonging to 
the noun, being attracted by the verb, becomes the relation of 
that verb : thus the relation answering the question where ? 
being drawn on by the verb, is made to answer the question 
whence ? 'O iKeiOev TroXefiog, ^svpo tj^el, the war there will come 
hither. Thuc. h, 35. the Lacedcemonians demand that the Athe- 
nians withdraw their partisans from Pylos, loaTreo kol uvtoX rovg 
airo Qpq.Kr}g, as they will ivithdraw their troops from Thracia. 
Theophr. Char. 2, 4. "Apag n rwv airo Tr\g TpawiZrig. The same 
is done with the relation whither, Herod. 7, 33. 'Eg tov Ilpwrc- 
(TiXeu) to Ipov, TO kg 'EXaiovvTa, (for to Iv 'EXmovvTi,) ayive- 
ofjiivag. See Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 61. et ad Phasd. 2. et 57^ 
where there are other instances of such constructions (with 
virlp, TTspi), 

II. Anacoluthon. 

1. An anacoluthon [avaKoXovBov) is a construction, of which 
the close does not grammatically correspond to its beginning, 
though it has yet been intentionally used. But we must be 
careful not to be over-ready to apply this explanation to any 
passage, of which the construction is rather uncommon, or 
which has been corrupted by the transcribers. Any anacoluthon 
is suspicious, when its origin is not natural, and the proposition 
has not gained any thing in point of elegance, distinctness, 
emphasis, or conciseness. 

2. The usual kind of anacoluthon is that of a writer com- 
mencing a period in the way, which the process of his speech 
requires, but afterwards, and especially after some interpola- 

^ Exactly in the same way, IJoXXov Sti t[X£ irouXv, {much is wanting that I do it, 
I am very far from doing it,) was the origin of the more customary IloXXoi) dkia 

TTOltlV. 



450 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

tions, which make the hearer forget the beginning of the con- 
struction, passing over to a new construction ; (Plato ApoL 
p. 19.) TovTwv EKa<JTog oloor' larlv, liov bIq ekclgtyiv tCjv ttoXewv, 
TOVQ viovQ) olg £^£crrt rwv kavrCyv TroXtrwy TrpoTjca ^vvdvai (^ av 
(5ovX(i)VTai, rovTovQ TrdOovm — (T(l>L(n ^vveTvai. Here the tovtwv 
in the beginning refers to some sophists named before, and 
both the process of the speech and its emphasis required the 
new period to commence with, Any one of them is capable of 
persuading young people, &c. The following proposition must 
then have had the infin. irdOeiv to correspond to oToo-r' lariv. 
But further on, the mention of the young people being inter- 
polated with circumstances rendered necessary to establish a 
contrast, (the young people who are at liberty to have a gra- 
tuitous intercourse with any of their fellow- citizens whom they 
like,) the writer forsakes his first construction, of which the 
grammatical junction is now obscured, and finds it more na- 
tural to refer with a second rovTovg to the viovg, and to com- 
mence a new construction, rovrovg irdOovcji — i. e. those sophists 
persuade the young people, &c. 

3. We will take another example from Plato Phcedr, 17. — 
{p. 307. Heind.) Toiavra yap 6 epiog eTnddKvvTaL' ^vdTvxovvraQ 
filv a firj \v7rr]v toiq aXXoig irapi^u, aviapa iroiu vofxiZ^uv* ev- 
TV)(^ovvTag ^£ Kal to. p,rj r}dovrig aE,ta Trap* Ikelvojv liraivov avajKa- 
^et TvyxavBtv : such are the effects of love, it makes the unfortu- 
nate consider as sad that which gives no displeasure to others— 
the writer now wishing emphatically to establish the contrast 
{it forcibly causes even indifferent things to be praised). But 
the logical order in that case required the second proposition to 
begin with I{ap EVTv^ovvrMv Se — this, however, would have 
destroyed the symmetry, Awo-ruxoi^vrcic jwtv — irap' evTvxovvrcov 
Si — the writer, unwilling to sacrifice either symmetry or em- 
phasis to logical order, retains the accus. evrvxovvTag, which 
the analogy of the first proposition demanded, as an accus. 
absolute, and refers by means of Trap' EKeivwv to the same ob- 
ject to be enabled to close energetically with Eiraivov avayKoZu 
ru7x«^£'^' It is only to us, who are not accustomed to such 
transitions from one construction to another, that such a double 
reference seems obscure. 

4. The motive of the following short anacoluthon is still more 
obvious (Plato Alcib. I. p. 134) ; '^i2t yap av t^ovaia p.iv rj iroidv 
6 jSovXfrat, vovv ^l pi) ^XV^ ^^ dKog avpfdaiveiv ; Here two 



SYNTAX. 451 

propositions are dependent on one relative, which each requires 
to be in a different casus; to put it twice (w fxlv — og ^l — ) 
would have impaired the symmetry and distinctness of the 
speech. The anacoluthon renders the period far more compact, 
the second proposition being appended as if the relative had 
gone before in the nomin., which is immediately made evident 
by the nature of the second proposition {vovv ^l firi txy)' The 
case is the same in Phmdo, p. 82. 'EjcaTvot oIq tl jLiiXei rrig tavrtjv 
■ipvxng, aXXa jurj awpLara irXaTTOVTEg Zioai, When the second 
proposition presupposes the relative in an oblique case, Horn. 
'Oil £7rt TToXX Ijuoyricra, ^ocrav Si juoi vhg 'A^j^atojv, Plato Protag, 
313. ligijjTa'yoQaQ ov ovt^ jiyvtocrKSiQ ovre Si£iXeE,aL ovdsTriLTrors, 
the object {avTov, ai/rw, &c. Hom. e, fxiv,) may be considered as 
omitted : it really occurs, for instance, in the following propo- 
sitions, //. a. 79. og fiaya iravrijjv ^A^yuwy Kparhiy KaX ol ttel- 
Oovrat 'A;(afO(, Plato Men. 27. Ylapa rovrtoV} ol /XT^rf TTpocnroLovv- 
rai ^i^cLGKoXoL sivai jutjt e(jTiv avrCw fiad^rrig ovdu.g, though this 
does not improve the anacoluthia. See other examples in Thuc. 
2, 74. Od, a. 70. j3. 54, 113, and comp. Herm. ad Viger. 28, 
§ ^07. 

5. For another very common anacoluthon with the part., see 
§ 144. Obs. 1 ; and for the nom. absolute see § 145. Obs. 1. 

6. The instance when a singular is immediately added to a 
plural to define the latter more precisely, can hardly be con- 
sidered as an anacoluthia ; 01 §£ oh^ug avTM Trpoo-axov, which is 
more emphatical than Twy St ouSaic— Trpoo-axe^ of those, how- 
ever, no one attended to him. 

III. Inversion. 
1. Inversions and involved constructions are on the whole 
far less common in Greek, even with poets, than in Latin. In 
some instances, however, the inversions even in prose are more 
strained. This arises from the anxiety, peculiar to Attic writers, 
to place together the words of one or two propositions which 
resemble, oppose, or refer to one another. Thus, for instance, 
they would say, XlavTbyv yag Traai Travr^g t^OLaroi elai Kap)(^r}- 
^ovioi 'I^wjuaioig, for Travrag K. iravTcov t^OLcjToi elai iraai 'P. 
— Plato Phcedr. p. 277. c. IlofjctX^ fxlv iroiKiXovg ^^xf '^"^ 
iravapfiovLOvg ^i^ovg Xoyovg, airXovg Be cnrXy. To attain this 
they even sever the article from its 7ioun, AI(t)(vvel ttoXlv Ttjv 
avTog avTov — and pi^ep. from their casus, ev aXXora aXXy, for 
aXXoTE Iv (iXXy : Trap' ovk lOlXwv kOeXovayy Od. £. 155. 

G g 2 



453 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 

2. Inversions are also caused by the very natural endeavour 
to enounce first that part of a proposition, on which the stress 
is to be laid; Demosth. Olynth. III. p. 37. To filv irpCoTov — 
ayaTVTi]Tov y]V Tvaga rov ^rjjuiov tCjv aWii)v tjcaorr^ /cat Tifxi]Q koH aQ\riQ 
KOI ayaOov tivoq jU£raXa/3av, vvv ^e rovvavriov. Here the dat, 
kKacTTM is dependent on ayairriTov riv, [formerly each of the other 
citizens was highly pleased, when he obtained honours from the 
people, now it is quite the reverse,) but irapa rov druaov, which is 
dependent on ideTa\al5tiVi has the greatest stress^ and therefore 
comes before it. 

3. Thus the emphasis sometimes removes the adverb, which 
should come after the relative, before it^ Nuv §>) a cXtyov, what I 
said before, Plato Euthyd. 288. which sometimes may cause 
ambiguity, Theocr. 10, 17. s'x"? TraXai wv lirSviiug, where TraXat 
does not belong to ix^ig, but to iTTidvfxug (compare Spalding 
ad Demosth. Mid, § 30). 

4. In the following instance obscurity is avoided by the in- 
version, Demosth. OL III. towards the end, 'A^iw viiag — /x)) 
7ra^a)(wpav rr\Q ra^uog, rjv vfxlv ol TrgoyQvoi ttiq clq^ttiq fxeTa 
TToXXwp KOL KttXwv Kiv^vvujv K:r)]crajU£vot KariXiTTov, here the gen. 
Trig aperrig is dependent on the other gen. ra^ewg, {ra^ig Trig 
apETTig, the order of virtue,) but both together would have created 
confusion. 

5. But it frequently happens that we perfectly feel that a 
proposition has gained by being inverted, though we cannot 
elucidate it by any of the above observations. Take for ex- 
ample that beautiful passage of Plato Phmdr. 10. "Qo-TTfp yap 
OL TO, TTSLvCJvTa OpijULjiaTa OaWov tj Tiva Kapirov TrpocrdovTeg ayovcn, 
fTv Ifiol Xoyovg ovtu) irpordvcjv — (paivsL Tr£pia.E,Eiv, &c. where ol 
is the article of TrpoadovTeg, and ra irHvivvTa OpippaTa depend 
on ayovaiv^: Cyrop.6,4t,S."]AZeiv avTM dl ttoXu ^ApcKJirov avdpa 
Kot iriaTOTEpov koX apdvova, where ttoXu strengthens the compar., 
and the gen. ^ApaaTrov depends on them ; exactly as in Demosth. 
Mid.4Q. 01 Se TjTipijjpivoL diairoWif tovtmv da\v ^Xclttw irpaypaTa, 
instead of rjTipuyptvoL dai dia irpaypara ttoXXw iXarrio tovtiov* 

6. In the forms of supplications, irpog Oeiov, yovaTwv, and the 
like, the emotion of the mind puts the personal pronoun ere first, 
without placing it before the prep., because this orthotoned 

2 But I leave the reader to choose between this explanation, and that by ajiaco- 
luthia, viz. that the writer commenced with oi, to employ the part, dyovrtg, but after- 
wards preferred the nerh dyovaiv to avoid the clashing encounter of two participles 
(oi — TTpoatiovreg dyovreg, ha,t. ii — qtii porrigeiido ducunt). 



SYNTAX. 453 

emphasis would announce a contrast^ which does not occur. It 
is therefore inserted between the prep, and its casus : w irpog ce 
yovarivv, Trpog as Oeiov, (viz. iKeTEvw, which mostly is omitted,) 
Soph. (Ed. C. 1333. Ylphg vvv o-e kq^vCjv, irpog O^wv ofjioyviwv 

IV. Ellipsis, 

1. Ellipsis or omission opens a wide field in the Greek Syn- 
tax, We shall confine ourselves to a few general remarks. It 
is commonly used only in cases, where the words omitted are 
easily supplied from the nature of the proposition, or from the 
context, as in all phrases hke KoijLiaaOai ftaOvv {sc. vttvov,) -rrorepav 
TpaTrr\(jri (sc, o^ov,) IrvimTo TroXXag {sc. TrXriyagy) and the like. 

2. Those instances of ellipsis, where more or less words of 
the first half of a period are to be repeated in the second, are 
easily supplied, though the Greek indulges in a greater lati- 
tude in this respect than other languages ; it frequently has 
only the pai^ticle or pronoim, which introduces the proposition. 
Thus we find aTrtp or eltt^p apa, {if by chance,) instead of if it 
he so J or the like; in Plato Euthyd, 296. the supposition 
that something might mislead, is answered by, Ovkovv rj/iiag ye, 
aXX, eiTrep, o-£, i. e. not us, but if any, you {if it could mislead any 
one, it luould mislead you). The relative is used in the same 
way in Plato de LL. 4. p. 710. Ylavra o-;^£S6v cnrdpyaaTai rw 
0£w, airsp orav (dovXrjOrj ^ia(l)£p6vT(i)g £i) irpa^ai tlvu ttoXlv, all has 
been done by the god which {he is ivont to do,) ivhen he intends 
to render a state peculiarly happy. Again, Ei SrJ tijj docpwrepog 
(pairjv elvai, tovtio av, {sc. (l)airiv sivai,) if I could think myself iviser 
in any thing (rw,) it would be in this. 

3. Thus negations are used with the omission of that, which 
is denied, which must be supplied from what has gone before. 
Mt) often comes in the middle of a period, (see § 148, 2, h.) so 
as to be before other words, and thus renders the proposition 
obscure to the unlearned, Tov IpCivra rz koi p.y] Kpivovpev, where 
KOi jui] stands for /cat tov jult] f/owvra : — Tig ovv Tpoirog tov KoXiiJg koX 
juri ypacpeiv; where KaXCog is omitted after ju/j : — ^AyaOoX rj jun) 
av^psg, good meuy or such as are not {good) : — Kat ottote, kgX firj, 
for KoX OTTOTE firj, Plato Alcib. I. 13. 

4. Attic writers are very familiar with a striking ellipsis ; 

3 See MatthiEe's Gr. G-r. § 465, 3. p. 671. -EnrjJ. transl. 4th edit. Person's Adv. 
220. That crs must be left enclitic in this connexion, is evident of itself. But even 
correct editors ai'e very often in fault in this respect. 



454 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 



^ 



of two opposite conditional propositions the first is often left 
without a conclusion. But this is done only when the first pro- 
position is understood of itself from the nature of the thing, 
and the speech therefore hastens to the second^ on which alone 
everything depends : Plato Protag, 325. (after the pains, which 
fathers take for the education of a son, have been enumerated,) 
Kat lav iilv Efcwv ndOiqTai, d ^e fxri^ locnrsp E,v\ov ^La(JTpi(p6ixivov 
£v6vvov(nv oLTreiXaTc /cat TrXnyalg, and if he readily obeys — (here 
the conclusion is indifferent, it is good, nothing else is required, 
or the like,) but if not, they make him straight again, like a 
warped piece of wood, with threats and blows, 

5. After a proposition beginning w^itb the artic, postpos. 6, a, 
the TovTo k(7TLv OY TavTCL IdTiv, which refers to it, is also commonly 
omitted ; Kat o juaXiaTa rjviaai jiie, on Kai MveidiZiv jule, and what 
vexed me the most, {was) that he abused me. Or even without 
oTi, see Demosth. Mid. 2. b. w^here ravra lanv is to be supplied 
after a 3' ev vfuv larXv vTroXonra, and then the proposition is re- 
sumed as in the beginning. The most usual phrases of this 
kind are with a superL, partly with, and partly without on, for 
instance, 

o dl 7ravTU)v SeivoraTov, on irpoQ rovg (5apj5apovg (rvji- 
juaxiav kiroirtdaTo, (where first tort, and then rovro 
lanv is omitted,) but what is the most grievous of all, 
is that he has formed an alliance with barbarians, 
Kol 6 TTavTWv y^XoioTarov, Kat tov Kvva Trjg ^Hptyovrig 
avriyayev, but what is the most laughable of all, he has 
even raised up the dog of Erigone, Lucian Deor, Cone, 5. 
The particle yap is usually interpolated after this ellipsis ; with 
us it is superfluous; '^O Se fxiyiarov, ov yap riOeXev, &c. (Com- 
pare above § 149. yap.) — Compare § 143, 1, 3. 

6. The words tovto e<ynv alone are omitted, when a premised 
adj. has the artic. prcepos. To ^£ fxiyiGTOv, iravra ravra fiovog 
Karetpyacraro : — Kat ro Travrcjv ai(j\Larov, Trpoo-e^rj^tVacr^e. And 
the same takes place in the expressions, TeKfiripiov de, or 'Strundov 
^£, {sc, rovrcjv earl rovro,) the proof of it is, and the like. For 
instance, SrjjuaTov St, rolg irovripo'lg ^vvovcnaCu, a token that it is 
so, is that he associates with wicked people. This phrase too is 
commonly considered with yap. Demosth. ^/zc^ro^. towards the 
end says, the people of Athens have always valued honour more 
highly than money, TeKfiripLov de, xpy]fxara fxlv yap irXuara rCov 
'EXX//VWV TTorl cfXMV ra iravO' vrrip ^iXorijULLag avriXuxTEv, 

(See the formules ro XzyofXEvov, and the like, § 131. Obs, 6.) 



APPENDIX. 



Lists of Words for the Declensions and Conjugations \ 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



ayopa, marhet-place, 
'Ayxiam, (J>) 
dSoXeaxilQ} prattler, 
'A6r]va, Minerva, 
Aiveiag, JEneas, 
UKavOa, thorn, 
aixiWa, contest, 
dpovpa, ploughed field, 
a(7xo\ia, business, 
yaXrj, weasel, 
yf}, eaiih, 
y\(x)(T(ja, tongue, 
do'ia, opinion, 
tXi'^va, Tip)er, 
^u)Vi], girdle, 
rinkga, day, 
daXaaaa, sea, 
Ovpa, (v,) door, 
KeKpoTTidrjQ, (X,) 
KS^aXr], head, 
KX'sTrrrjQ, thief, 
Kopt], girl, 
KpiTTiQ, judge, 
KTLtJTiijg, founder, 
Xavpa, lane, 
\virr], (v,) grief, 
jxaQr]TrjQ, disciple, 
H'eXiGaa, bee. 



[xspi{.iva, care, 

Midag, (X,) 

fiolpa, share, 

v'lKT], (T,) victory, 

vviKpr], bride, 

opyi), anger, 

6pvi0o9f)pag,gen. a, fowler, 

Usparig, Persian, 

TrXevpd, side, 

7rvicrr]g, pugilist, 

TTvXrj, {v,) gate, 

pi^a, root, 

CKid, shade, 

IiKvOr}g, (v,) Scythian, 

UTsyr], roof, 

arod, portico, 

G(paipa, globe, 

G(pvpa, hammer, 

aXoXrj, leisure, 

Gwr-qpia, preservation, 

rafxiag, steicard, 

TexviTujg, artist, 

vXr], (v,) wood, 

^iXia, friendship, 

Xapd,joy, 

yXalva, upper garment, 

X^pc-} country, 

xpvxn,soul. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 

Feminines ha. og. 

1. Besides the trees, (see § 32, 3.) the following jofa^^^ 

rj f3i[3Xog, or (3v(3Xog, and 
ri, 6, TraTTvpog, papyrus. 



^ The lists of examples for declensions and conjugations are arranged in alpha- 
betical order, that the learner may exercise his own judgment, which of the rules 
stated in the G-rammar he is to apply to each word. 



456 APPENDIX. 

97 KoKKOQ, kermes, but 6 kokkoq, any berry, and especially the scarlet berry of 

the kermes, 
cxoTvoe, rush, vdpdog, spikenard, pd^avog, cabbage. 

To these words may be added, 

^vaGOQ,fine linen, 
(3i(5XoQ, and dsXrog, book, 
doKog, rafter, pct^dog, rod, 

PdXavog and aKvXog, acorn. 

2. The following stones and earths , 

6, T^jXiOog, in the /em. chiefly a precious stone. 

apyiXog, clay, KpvaraXXog, crystal, but 6 KpvcTToXXog, ice, 

a<T<paXTog, bitumen, fiiXrog, red-lead, 

PdffavoQ, touchstone, trial, ffd'7r(peipog, sapphire, 

yvxpog, plaster, aiJidpaydog, emerald, 

ijXeKTpog, (also to ^XeicTpov,) amber, riravog, chalk. 

To these may be added : 

dfifiog, -il/dfifxag, dfiaOog, i^jdnaBog, sand, 

il/fi(pog, pebble, vote, TrXivQog, tile, 

vaXog, glass, (icJXog, clod or lump of earth, 

KOTTpog, dirt, mud, ovOog, dung, 

OTToSbg, ashes, aa^oXog, soot. 

3. Words of objects proper to enclose something, to put 
it by, &c. 

KifiojTbg and Xijvbg, vat of a wine-press, 

XV^bg, chest, aKuTog, (J), 6,) kind of boat, 

aopbg, coffin, aTdfivog, {rj, 6,) pitcher, 

appixog, basket, XrjKvOog, oil-flask, 

KdpdoTTog, kneading-trough, 7rpo%oof, 7rp6%ovf, ewer, 

dadiiivQog, bathing-tub, Kaixivog, stone oven, 

TTveXog, pail, OoXog, {rj, 6,) cupola. 

4. Words relative to a road, 

odog and drpaTrog and Tpi(3og, footpath, 

KsXevOog, way, rdppog and KairtTog, ditch, 

olfiog, (6, ri,) path, 

5. The following isolated words, 

xh'^og and ^Treipog, continent, nf]piv6og, cord, small rope, packthread, 

vrj(Tog, island, rrj^Bwog, Roman toga, 

voaog, disease, (Sap^irog, (ji, 6,) lyre, 

SpocTog, dew, rdfitaog, runnet, 

yvdOog, jaw-bone, yspavog, crane, 

KepKog, tail, Kopvdog, KopvdaXbg, lark, 

pivbg, {r}, 6,) skin, KoxXog, (6, ^,) cockle, snail, 
xj/iaOog, {rj, 6,) mat of rushes, 
and with a difference in the signif. 

■ii XeKiOog, yolk of an egg, 6 XUiOog, pease-soup. 



APPENDIX. 



457 



LIST OF WORDS TO BE DECLINED. 



ayyeXog, messenger, 
dsTog, eagle, 
aOXog, contest, 
dOXov, reward of a contest, 
ij dfiTreXoQ, vine, 
avOptoTTog, man, 
apyvpog and 
dpyvpiov, silver, 
fpyov, work, 
svpog, east-wind, 
^^vpog, west-wind, 
ifidTiov, garment, 
lav, violet, 
KapKivog, crab-fish, 
KaaaiTtpog, tin, 
KEpacTog, cherry-tree, 
KOTivog, wild olive-tree, 
IxrjXov, apple. 



ri firjXog, apple-tree, 

fiSXifSog or fji6Xv(3Sog, lead, 

fiopiov, small part, 

voTog, south-wind, 

KvXov, wood, 

diKog, house, 

Traidiov, young child, 

podov, rose, 

aidr]pog, iron, 

CTrafffibg, spasm, 

arparbg, army, 

ravpog, bull, 

^dpfiuKov, medicine, 

V 'pijyog, beech-tree, 

^opTLOv, load, 

XaXKog, brass, 

Xpvabg and 

XpvcFiov, gold. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 

List of the Words, in which the Syllable preceding the termination of the Casus is long% 
in ig and vg those which have a ^ in their inflection, 

r) Kvnjxlg, shin-bone, 

KptjTrig, pedestal, 

pa(pavlg, radish, 

ipVp'^Q) kittle stone, 

dayvg, doll: 



tj d'tpig, vault, arch, 
(SaX(3lgf barrier, 
Kapig, sea-crabfish, 
KTjKig, moisture, juice, 
KTjXig, blot, 
KXrfig, (Ion. for KXeig,) key, 

those which have a 6, 

r) dyXig, cloves of garlic, 
ri fispfxig, cord, string, 

those in ig and vg, which have an v, 

ri Ig, fibre, rj pig, nose, 
ri dKTig, ray, 
V y^t^X'^j point, edge, 
'EXevaig, 'SaXafiig, 

Toprvg, ^opKvg, 

in av, vv, ap, 

6 Traidv, pcean, hymn, 
6 fjLoavv, wooden tower, 
6 ipdp, starlinxf. 



6, 71, opvig, hird, 

rj Kfi) fivg, bundle of hay . 



6, r), 6lg, heap, shore, 
6 dsX^tg, dolphin, 
T] wSlg, child-birth, 
Tpax'ig : 



ndv, 

6 Kdp, Carian 



2 Teachers must here pay a particular attention to the accent with respect to 
both its place and its mark according to the general rules, and to those stated 
§ 38. Obs, 4. 



458 



APPENDIX^ 



in ap, gen. toq, 
TO (pp'eap, well, 

in ?, gen. koq, 

j8\d?, /3\a/coe, simpleton, 

6 Odjpa^, armour for the breast, 

6 Upa^, hawk, 

6 Kopda^, kind of dance, 

6 \d(3pa^, pike, voracious fish, 

6 t?, insect, r/ ^l^, Sphinx, 

if d'i^, wave, 

7} (Ssfi(5L^, whirlwind, 

b Tckpdi^, partridge, 

o ^oivL^, Phoenician, pah 
6 (36fji(3v^, silk-worm, 
6 doiSv^, pestle. 



TO arkap, suet : 



6 ola%, tiller of the rudder, 
6 avp(pa%, filth, 
^'sva^, impostor, 
^aia^, Phoeacian, 

■f] ^pl^, shuddering, 
ri pddi^, branch, 
6 cKuvh^, chervil, 
rj airdh^, branch of the palm-tree, 
-tree, purple- colour, 
6 KTjv^, sea-bird, 
Krjpv^, herald : 



in ?, gen. yog, 

ri pd%, grape-stone, 

t] fidaTi^, scourge, ri tte/z^i^, 

6 KOKKV^, cuckoo : 

in %, gen. xoQ, v ^«?j crumb : 



6 TSTTi^, cricket. 



in t//, gen. ttoq, 

6 l\p, Kvl\p, Opi'il/, are the names of some insects, 

6 pi\p, twig of the willow-tree, 

6 yvxl/, vulture, 6 ypvi/'j griffin, gryphon. 



WORDS TO BE DECLINED. 

The letters before the termination of the cases, which are not known from the 

rules given in the Grammar, are stated in a parenthesis. 
The vowels a, i, v, before the termination of the cases, are short ; the words in 

which they are long are in the preceding List. 

1. Examples of words which have a consonant before the 
termination of the cases : 



6 ayK<j)v, elbow, 

i] drjSihv, (o,) nightingale, 

6 di^p, (g,) air, 

6 alQrip, {s,) pure air, 

V aU, (r,) goat, 

6 dvdpidg, {vT,) statue, ■ 
6 d^ojv, (o,) axle of a wheel, 
rj avKa^, {k,) furrow, 

V priK, (%,) cough, 

6 yspMv, {ovT,) old man, 
o ypvxp, (tt,) griffin, 
t] Salg, (t,) feast, 
rj dq.g, {S,) torch. 



6 ^paKwv, (ovT,) dragon, 

T) 'ISXkdg, {d,) Greece, 

6 "EXXrjv, Greek, 

7} ekitig, (d,) hope, 

ri ipig, {d,) strife, 

6 OspdTTMv, {ovr,) servant, 

6 ifidg, (vT,) leather-strap, 

r) Karr)\i;pj {<p,) ladder, 

6 icXojv, twig, 

rj Kopvg, (9,) helmet, 

6 Krdg, (ev,) comb, 

ri KvXi^, {k,) chalice, cup, 

TO Kv^a, billow, 



APPENDIX. 



459 



ri XaX\a\p, (tt,) tempest, 

6 AoLKdJV, 

6 Xdpvy^, (y,) throat, 
6 Xifitjv, (£,) harbour, 
t] \vy%, (k,) lynx, 
6 fJ-rjv, month, 

TO VSKTap, 

6 ovvE (x,) nail, daw, 

6 oprv^, {y,) quail, 

TO ovOap, (r,) udder of animals, 

6 TTEvrjg, (r,) poor man, 

6 Ti'iva^, (k,) wooden tablet, 

6 TTOijirjv, (e,) shepherd, 

r] TTTspvl, (y,) loing, 

rj TTTvK, (X})fold, 

7] (Jctp^, (k,) flesh, 

ri ^tiprjv. Siren, 

2. Examples of such words^ as 
mination of the cases^ and 

TO dvQoQ,flK)wer, 

6 (SoTpvg, bunch of grapes, 

TO ysvog, race, family, 

■q ysvvg, jaw, 

TO cTKSTrag, covering, 

rj dpvg,oak. 

6 iTTTrtvg, horseman, 

TO Kofijxi, gum, 

rj Ai]TO), Latona, 

6 iidvTig, pn 

6 jxvg, mouse, 



TO cToiia, mouth, 

r) Srvl, (y,) 

V S^iyl, (y,) 

-n Tipvvg, {9,) 

6 <p9dp, louse, 

Tj (pXeip, (/3,) vein, 

T} <pXbl, {y^flam^e, 

6 ^(jjp, thief, 

TO (pCog, (r,) light, 

6 xa'Xy?//, (/3,) steel, 

6 ;)^ftjuwv, winter, storm, 

ri ;i^6Xi^a)j/, (o,) swallow, 

6 xhv, goose, 

Tj x^wJ^j (o,) earth, ground, 

Yf %iwv, (o,) snow, 

r) "xXafivg, {d,) military garment, 

r) ojxj^, eye, face. 

have a vowel before the ter- 
are more or less contracted. 

6 6p£vg,mule, 

TO opog, mountain, 

t] 6\pig,face, sense of seeing, 

rj TTiiGh), persuasion, 

6 TrkXtKvg, axe, (§ 51.) 

TO TTSTTspi, pepper, 

r) TriTvg, pine, 

rj TToirjaig, poetry, 

r) Trpa^ig, action, deed, 

6 ardx^g, ear of corn, 

T] (pvaig, nature. 



ADJECTIVES. 



Examples in oc of two and three terminations, to apply the 
rules of § 60, 2. and 4. 



All Adjectives, which are not of two terminations by any fixed rule, may be assumed 
to have the three terminations. 

deS,ibg, right, oftJie right side, {dexter,) 

drjXog, manifest, evident, 

SidXiOog, ornamented with precious stones, 

did(popog, diverse, different, 

diKaiog,just, 

dvvaTog, possible, 

eXa(ppbg, light, nimble, 

kpvQpbg, red, 

evicaipog, opporttine, seasonable, 

Kri^oTvirog, jealous. 



ayaTcqrog, 

ddiKog, unjust, 

dQXiog, lor etched, 

dfiaxog, invincible, 

d^iog, worthy, 

dpicrrepog, wJiat is on the left hand, 

(3apvTovog, 

f3acnXiKbg, kingly, royal, 

yi.(jjpyiKbg, belonging to agriculture, 

yvjivbg, naked. 



460 APPENDIX. 

r)niyv[ivoQj half-naked, ^kvog, strange, foreigrij 

OavfidffioQ, wonderful, o^vOvfJioc, irascible, 

Osiog, divine, opQdgy straight, 

Oepfibg, warm, hot, TroXvcpdyog, voracious, 

Ovqrbg, mortal, TrpoOvfiog, willing, 

Idcog, proper, peculiar, asfxvbg, venerable, 

Ispbg, holy, sacred, aKXrjpbg, hard, rough, 

KaOapbg, clean, pure, <yo(pbg, wise, 

Koivbg, common, general, (nrdviog, rare, scarce, 

\d\og, loquacious, talkative, arivbg, narrow, 

Xiiog, smooth, TaXa'nrojpog, miserable, harassing, 

XevKog, white, TV(p\bg, blind, 

fiaXuKbg, soft, tender, (pLXoreKvog, loving children, 

fiovoQ, alone, XwXof, lame. 



LIST OF REGULAR VERBS. 

Prefatory Remarks, 

1. Any verb, of which nothing else is stated^ makes its 
aorists and perf, according to the first form^ and its conjuga- 
tion is sufficiently obvious from the rules laid down in the 
Grammar. The same is to be observed with regard to any 
single tense, which is not expressly stated. If, for instance, 
there is merely aor, 2. marked, this alludes barely to the aor, 
act., (and med.) but the aor. pass, and the perf. act. must be 
made after the first form. 

2. Wherever the aor. 2. pass, is mentioned, the aor, 1. pass. 
must always be made, because it very often occurs as a more 
uncommon form along with the aor. 2, and the verbs, in which 
it is not used at all, cannot be stated with any degree of 
certainty. 

3. The perf. act. is not in use in a great many verbs, but 
these verbs too cannot be enumerated with absolute certainty ; 
it ought, therefore, to be conjugated in every verb according to 
analogy, and the perf. pass, is to be derived from it. 

4. The pass, may be formed without hesitation even in in- 
trans. verbs, because there are constructions in which the 3 pers. 
pass, are also used of intrans. verbs. 

. 5. But to make a middle voice of verbs, in which it is not in 
use, would be a practice of barbarisms without any utility. 
Wherever there is a medium, it has been carefully noticed ; yet 
in many of these verbs the middle occurs only in some com- 
pounds, which must be looked for in dictionaries : the simple 



APPENDIX. 



461 



verbs will answer the purpose of practising their conjugation. — 
When the syllable MED. alone announces a middle voice, its 
aor. and its fut. are made after the same tenses in the act. 

6. All verbs are considered regular, which are formed ac- 
cording to the foregoing rules, without reference to their signif. or 
any anomaly in their signif. Hence we have admitted, not only 
the deponents of the pass, and med, form, (§ 113, 3.) but also 
those verbs in which some single tenses deviate from the form 
in point of meaning. This, however, has been noticed in all 
cases of some importance. 

7. The statement— /z^^. med. — immediately after the act. de- 
notes that such a verb takes (according to § 113, 4.) its fut. 
from the middle voice, though in an act. sense. 

8. The expression — pass, takes the o- — alludes every where 
to the perf. and aor. 1, but is used only of verbs, where it is not 
a matter of course (§ 98 and 100). 



VERBA BARYTONA. 



ayd\\(d, I adorn ; Med. / stnit about. 

dyysXXoj, I announce. — Med, — aor. 2. 
act. and med. are little used. 

dysipoj, I assemble. — Redupl. Att. — Med. 

dyx^tii I strangle, trans. ; Med. / choke, 
intrans. 

q,d(o, contr. of dsidio, I sing, fut. med. 

dOpoi^uj, I collect. 

dOvpo), I play, sport. 

aLKiZ(^, I use ill, mutilate. 

aiviaffofiai, TTOfiai.dep. med. I speak am- 
biguously or enigmatically. 

atpw, / lift up, see § 101. 06s. 2, and 
compare Anom. — Med. 

dtcrffu), act. and pass. dep. 1 rush out, sally 

out ; Att. a<T(TO} or q,TTOJ. 

aia^vviii, I shame ; pass. I am ashamed. 
See § 101. Obs. 8. 

di(ji), I hear, only pi-es. and imperf — 
Augment § 84. Obs. 2. 

aKovoj, I hear, listen to, fut. med. perf. 
dKTjKoa, plusq. dKTjicotiv, (§ 85, 2, 3.) 
— Pass, takes the a , 2)erf. pass, with- 
out redup)l. 

akaXd'^u), I shout for joy, fut. %o), § 92. 
Obs. 1. 

dXsi^it), I anoint, perf. § 85, 2. — Med. 

dA\a(7(Tw, TTi)i, I change. — Pass. aor. 2. 



dXXoixai, dep. med. I leap, see § 101. 

Obs. 2. and compare Anom. 
dix(5Xvv(i), I blunt. 
dfjLsi^u), I alternate. — Med. 
dfikXyo), I milk, 
dixvvcj, I ward off.- — Perf. is wanting. — 

Med. 
dvvo), I complete, finish, § 95. 06s. 3. 

Pass, takes the a. — Med. 
diTTb), I light, kindle. 
diTTut, I bind together, Med. I attack, touch, 
dpdu), I water, moisten. Pass, only 

pres. and imperf. 
dpiioTTix) and apjuo^w, I join, adapt. — 

Med. 
dpvu), I draw tq^, formed like dvv<a. — 

Med. 
apxw, / rule over. — Med. I begin. 
daTrd'Coiiai, dep. med. I embrace, greet. 
dcTTraipo), I palpitate, struggle. 
daTpaTTrio, I dart lightning. 
l3adiK(jJ, I walk, fut. med. 
(SdTTTb}, Iplunge,cha.veict. <p. — pass.aor. 2. 
l^ddXXii), I milk. 
(3r}(T(7(i), TTio, I cough. 
j3id^ofiai, dep. med. I force, pass, see 

§ 113. 06s. 6. 
^XdTtTix),Ihurt, charact. (3.— pass. aor. 2. 



462 



APPENDIX. 



jSXsTTw, / look at, pass. aor. 2. § 100. 

Obs. 7. 
(SXvZdf, I flow, gush out. 
(SovXevv), I advise. — Med. 
(Spd^u), or (Spdffao), tto), I boil with vio- 
lence, ferment, winnow, fut. aio. 
I3psn(x), I resound, no aor. and no peif. 
/3p£%w, / wet, bedew ; pass. I am wet ; 

has the aor. 2. 
y£/iw, I am full, no aor. and rvo perf. 
yivu), I give to taste ; Med. / taste. 
y\v(p<i), I carve, grave, augm. of the pe7f. 

see § 83. Obs. 1. 
■y vwpt^w, / recognise. 
ypdcpcj, I write; pass. aor. 2. § 100. Obs. 

6.— Med, 
daKpvoj, I iceep. 

davsi^oj, I lend on interest; Med. I bor- 
row on interest. 
d^pM, I flay — pass. aor. 2. 
^8(7x6^0), I command. 
^fww, I moisten, 
dexoi^ai, de}). med. I accept. — loass. See 

§113. 06s. 6. 
^iKdZ,it), I judge, administer justice. — Med, 
diojKoj, (not a compound,) I pursue. 
dovXivu), I serve. 
dpsTTO), I pluck, gather. — Med. 
kOi^u), I accustom, augm. ei. 
dKdZ,(i}, I conjecture, augm. § 84. 06s. 

5. 
t\Kb), I give way, augm. § 84. 06s. 5. and 

4. must not be confounded with the 

Anom. EIKQ. 
iipyb), I exclude, augm. § 84. 06s. 5. and 

4. see also the Anom. 
tXsyXw, / refute, redupl. Att. — p)erf. pass. 

§ 98. 06s. 7. 
k\i(J(T(jj, TTU), I wind, — augm. ei. perf. act. 

does not occur ; perf. pass. eiXiyjuai 

and aXtjXiyfiai. — Med, 
eXKd), I drag, augm. ft. — Med. 
eXtti^w, / hope, eXtto), see Anom. 
koprdZ^M, I keep a feast, augm. § 84. 06s. 9. 
eTTsiyb), (no compound,) / impel, pres. ; 

pass. I hasten. 
iTTiTrjdevix), I am diligent, augm. § 86. 

06s. 3. 
kpydH^oyiai, dep. med. I work, — augm. fi, 

jMss. See § 113. 06s. 6. 
tptidu), I prop. — redupl. Att. — Med. 



kpS<7<T(jJ, TTU), 1 row, fut. Gil). 

gptuyti), / belch, eruct, vomit, — aor. 2. — 

Med. 
epi^u), I strive, contend, vie with, rival, — 

redupl. Att. 
kpfirjvtvu), I explain, interpret, 
spiru}, I creep, augm. u. 
iTdZ>(x), commonly l^era'^w, / put to the 

proof. 
ivQvvix), I make straight. 
eiixofiai, dep. med. I pray, augm. § 84. 

06s. 5. 
rj^u), I delight. 
TjKbi, I come, am here. 
OdXXoj, I sprout or bud, — perf. 2. 
OdXTTCj, I warm. 

QavndZ,(t}, I admire, marvel, fut. med. 
BkXyb), I charm, beguile. 
Oepi^u), I reap. 
9r}yo), I whet, sharpen. 
6Xif3(t), I squeeze— pass. aor. 2. § 100. 

06s. 6. 
Opavo), I break in pieces, crumble : pass. 

takes the tr. 
Ovcj, see the Anom. 
Idpvu), I place, set. 
lOvvio, I direct, make straight. 
LKETevb), I implore, 
ifxeipo}, act. and pass. dep. I desire, wish 

for. 
iTTTrtvu),! ride on horseback. 
ia-)(v(t), I am able. 
Kudaipoj, (no compound,) I clean : aor. 

1. takes the a. — Med. 
Kaivb), I kill, aor. 2. ; perf. is wanting ; 

pass, only pi'es. and imperf. 
KaXvTTTb), I conceal, veil. — Med. 
fcaftTTrw, I bend, pass, perf § 98. 06s. 8. 
Ksipci), I shear, crop, pass. aor. 2. — Med. 
KtXtvcj, I order, bid ; pass, takes the a. 
k'sXXu), 1 come into poi-tjland, fut. KsXaco, 

§ 101. 06s. 3. 
KYipvaaii), TTU), I proclaim, publish. 
Kivdvvevu), I incur danger. 
KXeiu), see the Anom. 
kXstttu), I steal, pilfer, fut. med. — pe^f. 

§ 97. 06s. 1. § 98. 06s. 3.— pass. 

aor. 2. 
kX'lvu), I recline, lie down, § 101, 9. pass. 

aor. 1. and 2. — Med. rare. 
kXv^u), I rinse. 



APPENDIX. 



463 



Kvi^o), I excite an itching, scratch, burn. 

KoXd'Co), I chastise, fut. med. 

KoXovoj, I maim, pass, with and without 

the (T. 
KoniZ,u), 1 bring, Med. / receive, obtain. 
Kovib), T cover with dust, {kov'ktcj, kskovT- 

fiai.) 
KOTTTti), I cut off, hew. — perf. 1. (Epic 

perf. 2.) — pass, aor, 2. — Med. 
Kpaivit), I finish, fulfil. 
Kpivdj, I judge, try as a judge, § 101, 9. 

Med. 
Kpovb), I knock, push ; 2^ass. takes the a. 

Med. 
KpvTTTii), 1 hide, chai-act. /3. — pass. aor. 1. 

and 2. — Med. 
KTiZ^u), I found, establish. 
KvXiu), I roll ; pass, takes the cr. 
kijjXvoj, I hinder. 
Xey(o, I say, Med, See this verb, on 

account of some of its compounds, 

in the List of Anom. 
Xei(3o), I spill, shed. 

XeiTTii), I leave, aor. 2. — perf. 2. — Med. 
XkiTd), I peel, scale ; pass. aor. 2. accord- 
ing to § 100. 06s. 7. 
Xrjyoj, I leave off. 

Xoyi^ofiai, dep. med. I reckon, conclude. 
Xvixaivoj, I corrupt, aor. 1. takes r], Med. 
XvM, see Anom. 
fxaivofxai, see Anom. 
HaXdacroj, ttu), I soften. 
fxapaivoj, I tcither, aor. 2. takes a, pass. T 

am withered. 
lisjjKpoiJLai, dep. med. I blame, 
fi'svix), see Anom. 
fiep'iZcj, I distribute, Med. 
fir}vv(i), I point out. 

fxiaivu), I stain, pollute, aor. 1. takes r]. 
fxoXvvo), I defile. 
vsfxct), see Anom. 
vevbi, I nod. 
v)JxojU«i, Med. / sicim. 
vl<p(D, I snow. 

vofii^o), I am of opinion, think, 
odvpoixat, Med. / lament. 
o'lKTsiph), I pity. 

oijxis)Z,(i}, I bewail, § 92. Obs. l.fut. med. 
oKkXXcj, I land, trans, and intrans. 
olvvo), I make sharp>, exasperate. 
oveiSi^oj, I reprove. 



bvo}xaC(x), I name. 

oTrXi^b), I arm, furnish with arms, Med. 

opkyo), I stretch forth, reach, redupl. Att. 

Med. 
bpi^b), I mark bounds or limits, Med. 
dpvcrau), rru), I dig, redupl. Att. Med. 
TTaidevu), I educate, Med. 
TtaXaiit), I icrestle, pass, takes the a. 
TrdXXoj, I brandish, pass. aor. 2. 
TTciaaoj, I sprinkle, fut. (tio, Med. 
Traraffaci), see the Anom. 
Travd), I put an end to, pass. aor. 1. § 

100. Obs. 1.— Med. 
tthQu), see the Anom. 
TTsipoj, I pierce, pass. aor. 2. 
TTs/XTTw, I send, perf. § 97. Obs. 1. perf 

pass. § 98. Obs. 8. Med. 
'TTSvofiai, I am poor, only the pres. and 

imperf 
Trepaivoj, I accomplish, aor. 1. § 101, 4. 

Med. 
TTiE^w, I press. 
Tricrravu), I believe. 
irXdaaiA), ttoj, I form, fashion, fut. cm, 

Med. 
ttXc'kw, / plait, twine, pass. aor. 2. — 

Med. 
ttXvvco, I wash, § 101, 9. 
Tcviyo}, I suffocate, trans, fat. med. — pass. 

I choke, intrans. aor. 2. § 100. 

Obs. 6. 
TTopsvu), I transport, conduct, pass. I 

travel by land. 
TTopiZo, I procure, Med. I acquire. 
Trpdaffb), TT(t), I do act, find myself, has 

everywhere the a long, § 7- Obs. 4. 

pejf. 1. / have done, perf. 2. TrsTrpa- 

ya, I have found myself, (see how- 
ever, § 113. Obs. 3. and Buttm. 

Compl. Gr. Gr.)— Med. 
Trp'sTTOJ, I am becoming, only act. 
Trpio), I sow, pass, takes the cr. 
TTTuio), I stumble, trip. — pass, takes the <t. 
7rT7}(j(7(i), I shrink through fear. 
TTTicTaoj, I pound, fut. aoj. 
TTTicrffu), I fold, Med. 
TTTvoj, I spit, pass, takes the (x. 
Tv9(t), I putrefy, (v,) pass. I rot. 
pcLTTTO}, I seic, stitch. 
pi-TTdJ, I incline to. 
piiTTh), see Anom. 



464 



APPENDIX. 



<Taiv(Of I wag the tail, flatter, only act. — 

aor. 1 . takes rj. 
aalgiti, I sweep, aor. 1. takes ri,hntperf. 

2. has the pecuhar signif. / grin, as 

a pres. 
akjSofiai, dep. pass. I revere. 
aeioj, I shaJce, pass, takes the <r. — Med. 
atjixaivo}, I point out hy signs, aor. I. takes 

1]. — Med. 
asTTu), 1 make putrid — pass. I become 

putrid, has aor. 2., to which belongs 

also pe7'f. 2. 
aivofxat, I damage. 
aKaZ,(o, I limp. 

aKaTTToj, I dig, charact. 0. pass. aor. 2, 
CKSTToj, I cover. 

GKSTTTOfiai, dep. med. I survey. 
OKevd^w, I prepare, Med. 
(jKYj-n-TU), act. and med. I lean on. 
aKMTTTuj, I moch, ridicule. 
aTTsipw, I sow, pass. aor. 1. — Med. 
(TTrkvdit), see Anom. 
OTrevdu), I hasten. 

airovddi^dj, I use my endeavours, fat. med. 
aTdZ,<o, I drop, § 92. Obs. 1. 
orlyw, / cover. 

CT(i^it), I tread on, pass. aor. 2. 
trreixw, I proceed, aor. 1. and 2. 
arkXKu), I send, pass. aor. 1 and 2. Med. 
arkvit), 1 groan, only the pres. and im- 

perf. 
(TTsvdZo}, I sob, § 92. Obs. 1. 
arspyuj, I love, am contented with, perf. 2. 
(XTk(p(t}, I Jill to the brim, I crown, Med. 
arrjpiZoj, I fix, strengthen, % 92. Obs. 1. — 

Med. 
aToxdKofiai, dep. med. I conjecture. 
arpaTtvb), act. and med. I march against 

the enemy. 
arpsipu), I turn, twist round, § 98. Obs. 3. 

§ 100. 06s. 3.— pass. aor. 1 and 2. 

Med. 
o-vpi^w, / whistle. 

Gvpit), I drag along, pass. aor. 2. Med. 
<T<pdX\<x), I deceive, pass. aor. 2. 
C(pdTTo), I slay, hill, pass, aor.2. 
<T<piyy(jj, I make firm, constrain, pass. perf. 

§ 98. 06s. 7. 
<T0vSw, / throb, {' palpito/) § 92. 06s. 1. 
<TxiK(^, I split. 
<r%oXa'^a>, I am at leisure. 



Tapd(T(j(o, TTO), see Anom. 

TdcTffio, TTOJ, I arrange, pass. aor. 1 and 

2. Med. 
Teyyu), I bedew. 
Tiivbi, I stretch, § 101, 9. 
TEKfiaipu), I determine by certain limits, 
aor. I. takes rj. — Med. / demonstrate, 
prove. 
TtKTaivit),! workinwood, aor. 1. takes ri. 
rkXXu), an old verb, which occurs chiefly 
in compounds, ex. gr. gTrtrtXXw, I 
enjoin, § 101, 8. — Med. 
r£t;%w, see Anom. 
TrjKU), I melt, soften, pass. I am melted, 

has the aor. 2., to which belongs 

also'the perf. 2. 
TiWoj, I pluck, § 101, 4.-~Med. 
Tiu), see Anom, 
TLvdaaoj, I shake, Med. 
rpknw, I tremUe, has neither aor. nor 

perf. 
Tp'eTTio, I turn about, § 97. 06s. 1. § 98. 

06s. 3. § 100. 06s. 3. ; the aor. 2. is 

most in use in the act. pass, and 

Med. 
rp'spu}, I feed, see Anom. — Med. 
Tpi(3(t), I rub, pass. aor. 2. § 1 00. 06s. 6. 
TpiZoj, I chirp, fut. ?w, perf rsTplya. 
v/SpiKoj, I insult, abuse. 
v(paiv(tj, I weave, aor. 1 takes j/. 
v(t),Irain, pass, takes the a. 
(paivu), see Anom. 
<pap[id<T(T(o, TTb), I treat with drugs, give 

medicines. 
(paiSofiai, dep. med. I spare. 
(p9syyo[j,ai, dep. med. I produce a sound, 

perf. § 98. 06s. 7. 
^Qeipo), see Anom. 
(pXeycj, I burn, trans. ; pass. aor. 2. § 100. 

06s. 7. 
(ppd<^oj, I say, point out, Med. 
<ppd(T<70}, TTit), I enclose, pass. aor. 2. 

Med. 
(ppicTffoj, TTO), I shudder, charact. k, perf. 2. 
<ppovTiZ,it), I disquiet myself for. 
^pvyto, broil, toast, pass. aor. 2. § 100. 

06s. 6. 
<pvXd(7cr(t), TT(o, I gua/rd, Med. 
^vpit), see Anom. 
<pvTivo}, I plant. 
Xapii^ofiai, I gratify, dep. med. 



APPENDIX. 



465 



Xopevb), I dance. 

Xpjj^w, / have need of, wish for, only the 

pres. and imperf. (Compare Anom. 

Xpaw.) 
XP^^, I anoint, pass, takes the c, Med. 
xpaXXo), I play on the guitar, sing. 
xpavio, I touch,2oass. takes the (t. 



'•p'syii), I blame, censure. 

■^evSu), I delude, Med. Ilk, deceive. 

i//??0tZw, I calculate, reckon, Med. I 

cree by tote. 
•.//y%a», see Anom. 
ojdivu), I writhe with pain. 



VERBA CONTRACTA. 



' Ay arrdoj, I love. 

dyvosoj, I hiow not,fut. med. 

cidiKsu),! do injustice. 

at^£o/zat,pass.and dep. med. I am ashamed, 

fut. kaofxai, perf. and aor. pass, take 

the a. 
aljuarow, / stain with blood, 
alpkoj, see Anom. 
aLTsoj, 1 demand, Med. 
a'lTidoiiai, dep. med. I criminate. 
aKsofiai, dep. med. I heal, cure, fut. iao- 

fiai, perf. takes the cr. 

CLKoXovOkoJ, IfolloiC. 

ciKpifSou), I Tcnow accurately, Med. 

dKpodoi.iai, Med. / hear, listen. 

dXdoixai, pass. dep. I stray. 

dXyku), I am in pain. 

dXodoj, I thrash, § 95, 5. 

df.id(o, I mow, Med. 

dij.(pt(TJ3T}T£(jj, I dispute, am of a different 

opinion, — augm. before. 
dviduj, (no compound,) pass, with the fut. 

med. I am grieved. 
d^iooj, I value, think icorthy. 
aTTavrdh),! meet, fut. med.. — augm. in the 

middle. 
aTrardw, (no compound,) / deceive. 
aTTtiXkoj, (no compound,) I threaten. 
dpdofxai, dep. med. I pray. 
dpiQfjieo}, 1 count, number, Med. 
dpKSoj, I suffice, — £ in the con'jvig.— pass. 

(with tlie same signif.) takes the <r. 
dpvkofiai, dep. pass. I deny, 
dpoo), I plough, retains the o in the conjug. 

— redupl. Att.pass. without a. 
dprdbj, I suspend, fasten, Med, 
doKkix), I exercise, p>ractise. 
abXk(x),I play on the flute. 
(5l6u), see Anom. 
j3od(jj, I cry out, bawl, § 95, 5. fut. 

med. 



(3ovKoXs(o, I feed herds. 

(5povTd(t), I thunder. 

ysXdoj, I laugh, fut. med. — the a is short 

in the conjug. — pass, takes a. 
ytvvdix), I beget, Med. 
^airavdi)), act. and pass. dep. I consume, 

spend. 
di^ioofxai, dep. med. I take by the rigid 

hand, receive kindly, 
dsu), see Anom. 
drjXsoj, I hurt, Med. 
dijXooj, I make knoicn. 
diairdb), (no compound,) I arbitrate, 

pass. I live or dwell in a certain 

place, augm. § 86. Obs. 4. 
SiaKOv'su), (no compound,) / serve, wait 

on, augm. § 83. 06s. 4. Med. with 

the same signif. 
df^d(o, I am thirsty, § 105. Obs. 5. 
SovXSo), I reduce to slavery, Med. 
dpdw, I do, jmfoinn, different from the 

Anom. didpdcTKOJ. 
dvGTvx^<^, I Clin unhappy. 
law, I let, leave, augm. ei. 
kyyvdb), I p)Udge, Med. I make myselj 

responsible for another. 
sy%£tjO£a), / deliver into any one's hands, 

augm. § 86. Obs. 3. 
kXekoi), I pity. 
ifiEOJ,! vomit, — e in the conjug. — redupl. 

Att. — pass, takes a. 
kvavTiooixai, dep. pass. I oppose, resist, 

— augm. before. 
sv9vfisofxai, dep. pass, I revolve in mind, 



— augm. § 



3. 



IvoxXkd), I molest, augm. § 80. Obs. 4. 
£7rt0y/ila», I desire, augm. § 86. Obs. 3. 
epdo), see Anom. 

epevvdoj, act. and med. I search, investi- 
gate. 
Ipijixoio, I lay waste. 

H h 



466 



APPENDIX. 



epvOpidb), I blush. 

epcJTdd), I inter. 

earidu), 1 entertain as a guest, — augm. ei. 

tvtpyersoj, I practise beneficence, augm. 
§ 86. 06s. 2. 

tvaej3s(j), I am pious, augm. § 86. Obs. 2. 

evbjx^io, I regale, pass. I am entertained, 
augm. § 86. Obs. 2. 

^dio, see Anom. 

Z,koj, I boil up, intrans. retains s in the 
^conjug. 

??;X6a»j / emulate. 

t^rjixiooj, I ptmisJi. 

(^rfTku), I seek. 

Kioypa^ko), I paint. 

r'lPdu), I am young. 

r)ysofiai, dep. med. I think, believe. 

rifxspoio, I tame. 

■tjTrdoixai, merely pass, I am worsted, de- 
feated, 

rix^i^, I sound. 

Oappso), 6apas(t), I have coiifidence in, take 
courage. 

Oedo/xai, dep. med. I contemplate. 

Orjpdoj, I hunt, fwt. med. 

6Xd(o, I bruise, crush, the a is short in 
the con jug., pass, takes the a. 

6pr}vsoj, I bewail, lament. 

Qviiidit), I fumigate. 

Ovixoci), I irritate. 

idofiai, dep. med. I heal. 

idpow, I perspire. 

ifjido), I draw, (as water,) / draw up, 
Med. 

i(TTops(jj, I learn by inquiry. 

KaKooj, I ill-treat, injure. 

Kavxdofxai, dep. med. I boast. 

Ksvrsoj, I sting, prick. 

Kivsu), I set in motion, excite. 

KXdu), I break, the a is short in the con- 
jug., pass, takes the a, not to be 
confounded with /cXdw, /cXatw, see 
Anom. 

Kkripou), I choose by lot, Med. / draw 



Kvdu), I gnaw, grate, § 105. Obs. 5. 
KOifiaM, I put to rest, pass. {Epic med.) 

I sleep. 
Koivow, I make common, communicate. 
Kotvojveo), I partake. 
KoWdoj, I glue, paste. 
KoXvfjL^db), I swim. 



Kops(jj, I sweep, different from Kopsv- 
vvfii, see Anom. 

KO(Tfik<x), I adorn, adjust. 

Korkb), act. and med. 1 am angry with, 
retains the 6 in the conjug. 

Kparhix), I have power, holdfast. 

Kporiix), I beat, clap the hands. 

KTVTTiu), I resound, make a noise, 

Kv^epvdu), I govern, steer. 

XaXso), / talk. 

XiTrap'ib), I beseech. 

Xoidopkix), act. pass, and med. I rail at. 

XvTTsu), I grieve, afflict. 

X(t)l3do[xai, dep. med. I ill-treat. 

Xw^aw, I relax, desist. 

ixaprvp'so), I am a witness, attest. 

jitidtdo), I smile. 

ixsrpsu), I measure, Med. 

firjxavdonai, dejj. med. I plan, invent. 

[Mi[x£ofiai, dep. med. I imitate. 

fxiasbj, I hate. 

vso), see Anom. 

viKaui, I conquer. 

vo'em, I meditate. 

vovOsTeo), I admonish. 

^eu), I scrape, plane, retains the c in 
the conj . and takes a in the pass. 

o'lKso), I inhabit, dioell. 

oiKodofisfjj, I build, Med. 

oKvsio, I am slow, am reluctant. 

bjxoXoykb), I assent, confess. 

oTrrdoj, I roast. 

opOoM, I erect, Med. — Comp. dvopOou), 
augm. § 86. Obs. 4. 

opixdo), act. and pass. I am eager, ad- 
vance. 

bpjxkix), I ride at anchor. 

opxkofjiai, dep. med. I skip, dance. 

6xk(t), I drive a carriage, pass. I i^ide in 
a carriage, intrans. 

Tcapoivko), I act indecently under the in- 
fluence of wine, augm. § 86. Obs. 4. 

Trarku), I tread. 

TTSivdo), I am pressed with hunger, § 105. 
Obs. 5. 

TTtipdcj, 1 attempt, try, — irtipdoiiai, with 
fut. med. and aor. pass. 1 endeavour, 
tindertake. 

TTspdit), see Anom. 

TTijddu), I leap, fut. med. 

TrXavdo), I mislead, pass. I tvander about. 

irXeovfKTeci}, I am eager for gain. 



APPENDIX. 



467 



7rXj]pow, I fill. 

TTOvkb), act. and med. I labour, toil, fut. 

r}(jo) and kao). 
TTTepoM, I furnish with wings. 
TTioXea), I sell. 
piKoio, I cause to take root, pass. I take 

root. 
(Trjixeiob), I designate, Med. 
ciydu), I keep silence, fut. med. 
(TiTsofiai, dep. med. I eat, dine. 
cnxJTrdb), I am silent, fut. med. 
(TKiprdo), I leap, hop. 
(Tfido), see Anom. 
aTTCKi), I drag — the a is short in the 

conj. — pass, takes the tr, Med. 
(JTS^avoci), I crown, Med. 
(TvXdoj, I plunder. 
(T(ppiyd(o, I swell with rage. 
TsXeu), I finish, retains c in the conjug., 

pass, takes the a, Med, 
rrjpsoj, I observe, icatch. 



Tifjicto), I honour, Med. 

rtjwwplw, / assist, take vengeance, Med. 

ToXudio, I dare. 

rpkb), I tremble, § 105. Obs. 2, retains 

the e in the conjug. 
rpvirdb), I bore, perforate. 
Tpvcpdoj, I live luxuriously, 
rpv^ocj, I render insolent, pass. I am in- 



(pOovko), I envy. 

(piXsoj, I love. 

^o(56ofJiai, dep. pass. I fear. 

(poiTdoj, I visit, fn 

(pvcrdcxj, I bloiv (as 

XaXdoj, I slacken, relax, — the a is short 

in the conjug., and the pass, has 

the ff. 
Xfipow, act. more commonly Med. / 

subjugate, conquer. 
%wp6w, I retire, give way, fut. med. 
■ipdo), 1 rub, § 1 05. Obs. 5. Med. 



The Greek Technical Grammatical Terms, 

^roixua, letters : (jyiovrj^vra jcai GVfji<l>wva, voivels and conso- 
nants ; afpwva, {mutcje,) i]fXL^b)va^ {semi-vocales,) vypa\ [liquidce,) 
^aaia, xptXa, fiiaa, [aspiratce, tenues, medics,) Iwia^iiov, an aacient 
letter, used only as a num,eral figure, see p. 9. 

Trpoo-wSiai, accents, but they commonly comprise also quan- 
tity, spiritus, apostrophus, and hypodiastole (§ 15^ 2) ; b^ua, 
jdapua, TTB^pLGTTwuivr), acute, grave, circumflea; ; TrvEv/uLara, spi- 
ritus, datjua KaX ^iXj), {sc, irpotjijjdia,) asper and lenis ; (jTiyjurj, 
TeXsia GTiyfxri, full stop, fiicrt} GTLyfirj, colon, vTroariy^i), comma ; 
XQovog, quantity, avWa^ri Stxpovoc, (^ anceps,') doubtful syl- 
lable ; yaafiw^ia ^, hiatus. 

Parts of speech : ovo}xa,noun, {ovofia TrgoanyoQiKov, substan- 
tive, — IttiOetikov, adjective, — Kvpiov, proper name,) avT(jjvviuLia, 
pronoun, apOpov, ai^ticle, {7rpoTa(j(T6f.avov, vTroraaaofievov, prcs- 



^ They are also called dfHTd^oXa, because they undergo no change on being 
declined and conjugated. 

2 To write this word %ao-/>tf/j^j'a is incorrect ; there is nothing of ^^w in it ; the 
word comes from %a(T/>iw^j;g,/MZZ of chasms. 

H h 2 



468 APPENDIX. 

positivus, postpositivus,) fii^roxi], participle, pijima, verb, Inipprifjia, 
adverb, npoOecng, preposition, avv^Eajnog, conjunction, {Inter- 
jections are comprised among adverbs.) 

yivoQ apasviKov, Or}\vKov, oh^irepov, masculine, feminine, neuter 
gender, aQidfiog kvLKog, ^vIkoq, 7r\ri9vvTiKog, singular, dual, plural 
number ; KXhig, declension, TTTiodig, case ; opdri or evOeia, or also 
ovopaaTiKi], nominative, yeviicri, genitive, Sotikt), dative, aiTiariici], 
accusative, kXyjtiktj, vocative, irrcodeig irXayiai, casus obliqui. 

ovofia airoX^Xvpivov or clttoXvtov, also arrXovv and Ostikov, the 
positive, (TvyKpLTiKov, comparative, vttepOetikov, superlative. 

orvZvyia, conjugation, which in Greek means only the different 
classes of verbs, which are conjugated alike ; ex. gr. the verbs 
\, p, Vi p'. what we call to conjugate ' and conjugation, is in 
Greek the same as declining, kXlvelv, KXhig. — 9epa, thema, see 
§ 92, 6. IT p6(Tb)iTa, persons. 

av^if\aig (Tv\\a(5iKrj kol xpoyiK:i75 augmentum syllab. et temp. 
avadnrXaaiacrpog, reduplication. 

^taOEcrig, the nature of the verb, in consequence of which it is 
a pripa IvepyriTLKov, TraOrirLKov, piaov, activum, passivum, medium, 
avTOTraOeg, intransitivum, aXkoTraOlg, transitivum. 

lyKkiaeig, moods ; opiariicri, indicative, viroTaicTiKri, conjunctive, 
evKTLKrj, optative, TrpocrraKTiKrj, imperative, cnrapepfparog, infinitive. 

Xpovoi, tenses ; IvEartbg, present, Traptox^jusvocj prceterite, piX- 
Xmv, future, irapaKupEvog, perfect^ irapaTaTLKog, imperfect, virep- 
avvTeXiKog, plusquamperfectum, aopiarog, aorist. {uaparadig, 
duration, extension, awTiXeia, consummation, perfection, momen- 
taneous action.) 

avvOiGig, composition, TrapaOaGig, juxtaposition, irapaavvOEra, 
words derived from compounds. 



Flourishes and Abbreviations. 

For understanding the old editions of Greek works, it is 
necessary to be acquainted with a far greater number of abbre- 
viations than those stated p. 9, which are met with in the 
printed text of modern times. A complete list of all the 
flourishes which occur would only confuse the learner; the 
selection of the principal in the following Table appears better 
calculated to be retained by the memory along with the expla- 
nation, and to be consulted on occasion. It contains, 1.) some 



APPENDIX. 469 

simple characters or figures, which frequently recur in the more 
complex ones ; 2.) such as will assist to explain others, which 
are not stated, by analogy. 

The first row or line contains the forms of letters, which no 
longer occur in common writing ; they are found in old manu- 
scripts only as elements of greater flourishes ; particularly the 
forms of £, which will be recognized in the abbreviations of kv 
and £7ri in the fourth row, and the form of the c, which will be 
found in the fifth row, in the abbreviations of era, (to, aoj. But 
both letters are also the elements of other flourishes or figures 
not mentioned in the Table. 

The learner must especially guard against mistaking the 
rather uncommon character of k in the first row, 1.) for rj as 
element of the flourish r/v, in the second row ; 2.) for the flourish 
TL at the end of the same row, particularly when the upper part 
of the figure is not sufficiently leaning backwards, which is the 
case in some printed books. 

The first of the three forms of v in the first row was formerly 
very much used ; the second is the same character with the con- 
necting stroke to the right. It is obvious that this letter in 
this form bears the same relation to the usual jul as N to M. 
The third form of v was used as a final r, and occurs in several 
very current editions, especially in those printed at Basle in 
Switzerland, for instance, in Eustathius ; it must be carefully 
compared with the flourish for aa in the fifth row, to guard 
against mistaking it for that character. 

The second row places together some flourishes, which are 
not easily guessed at ; they are selected from the alphabetically 
arranged third and sixth rows. This might also have been 
done with some of the flourishes beginning with l-n- in the fourth 
row, but it appears preferable to leave them together in order 
to facilitate their comparison. 

The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth row contain flourishes, of 
which the initial letter is easily guessed at with the assistance 
of the first row; they are in alphabetical order except the last 
£^, which has been added to complete the Table, 



470 



APPENDIX. 



I. ^ 



C 



V V 



V 



C 



^•li ^^ « 4 C § ^ <^ S" •i' 5 <^ 2^ 



-=-ov 'yap 


yap u 


U £A 


nv ov 


TO) U 


Of Kttl Tl 


ITT. 




IV. 




Y. 




VI. 




2<^ 


a9i 


^ 


uvat 


MS^ 


jua> 


r 


rriv 


<^ 


a\ 


cV 


Iv 


j^S 


jUWV 


^ 


Trig 


^ 


a\\ 


'O^ 


lirei^n 




oTov 


f 


Trig 


d\/J 


av 


%i 


eirev 


cSm, 


OUK 


S^ 


TO 


^ 


ap 


u% 


Ittl 


^ 


oCroc 


^ 


TOV 


ud^' 


ahro 


^ 


IttX 


to-^* 


Trapa 




TOV 


■/rf 


77 


uJuV 


lirl 


^ 


TTfp 




TOV 


>^' 


yap 


tUi' 


IttI 


s^ 


TTEpl 




Tovg 


^ 


yap 


Aj 


EV 


rrp 


TTO 


';$ 


^p 


}% 


ye\ 


^' 


Kara 


a 


po 


"S 


TpO 


■^ 


yav 


x^ 


KScpaXaLOv (^ 


aa 


w 


TU) 


>^ 


yep 


M^ 


fjLarisyv 


o£ 


(7£ 


T-"^ 


TlOV 


7^ 


ytveraL ^ 


p.S 


^s 


ad at 


r 


TU>V 


V 


yo 


/a 


jjlIv 


6 


GO 


y 


VL 


:^ 


ypi 




fxlv 


- C4^ 


GIT 


VUJ 


VV 


7Z? 


ypo 


mJ^ 


lUEV 


OJ 


GG 


<jcr 


r 

vir 


m 


SeK 


hSIj 


fJLEV 


G 


G(0 


a> 


x» 


u 


^£V 




fxevog 


D 


rai 


?e 


Xo 


Hs- 


Sia 


F^' 


jueTo. 


r 


Tolg 


i 


(O 


^h 


Eia 


^ 


fiETa 




ravSa 


^ 


^p 



ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 



The Numex'als refer to the Pages. 



Abbreyiatioxs, 9, 468 
Abbreviated nominal forms, 77? 79 
Abstractum becoming concretum, 307 ; 

in the acciis. with the verb, 3-46 
Abiindans, 75, 76 
Accent on verbs, 180, sqq. ; in compounds 

with eig and dbg, 204, Obs. 13; 

compare 206, Obs. 19 ; on the Gen. 

and Dat. 51 ; drawn back, 27, 66, 

181 ; transposed in the contraction, 

44 ; in composition, 323, seqq. ; 

see also Anastrophe. 
Accusative in v, 65 ; of adverbs, 290, 

348 (9) ; Sunt. Accusat. of the abs- 
tractum with the verb, {iidxrjv, 
/xa%.) 346, 360; with tv, kukCjq 
\iyiiv, TTOitiv, 346 ; G-reek accusat. 
347, below ; of time, 348 ; as ap- 
position to the whole irroposition, 

349 ; as the more distant object, 
347, and Obs. 4 ; with the pass. 
350, sqq. ; with the middle toice, 
361, sqq. compare 365, 06s. 1 ; 
accus. with the injin. 394, 06s. 2 ; 
absolute, 406, 06s. 4. 407, 06s. 7 ; 
after o'ica, dicovuj, in lieu of the 
siibj. of the foUo"v^"iug verb, 448, 
06s. 6 

Adjective, 314, sqq. ; of one termina- 
tion, 86, 90 ; Synt. Adj. instead of 
subst. 326, below ; instead of ad- 
verb, ibid. ; without the art. before 
a subst. 329, Obs. 3 ; before a gen. 

350 ; instead of the neuter, {6i- 
Kaioc,) 448, 06s. 7 ', verbal adj. in 
rkog and rbg, 159, 160 ; Synt. 360; 
from the deponens, 361 

Adverb, 316, sqq. ; instead of adj. and 
subst. 330 (7) ; adverb as predicate, 
341 

Ampliativa (subst.), 310 



Anacoluthon, Aid 

Anastrophe, 299 

Aorist Synt. 366, sqq. ; in lieu of the 
2)erf. and plusq. 367 ; in lieu of the 
present, 370, 06s. 9 ; in the signif. 
of to use, 370, 06s. 5 ; in the hy- 
pothet. constr. 379 ; aorist and im- 
perf. in Homer, 369, 06s. 4. — See 
besides partic. of the aor. 

Aorist, Alexandrian in a, 143, 267 
(fcaiw) ; aor. in (ra in verbs of 
X, 11, V, p, 157, 06s. 3 

Aorist 2, its accentuation, 181 ; syncopat. 
active (in riv, (dv,vv, &c.), 146, 06s. 
8, and note ; syncopat. pass. {Xvro, 
dsKTo), 226, 227 ; with reduplica- 
tion, 119, 06s. 7. 121, 06s. 2 and 3 ; 
forms new themes, 232 ; is wanting 
in contracted verbs, 144 ; in aov, 
o6ni)v, 146, 06s. 9 ; aor. 2. pass. 
more usual than aor. 1. 153, 06s. 4 

Aorist pass, as med. 241, 365 ; med. as 
pass. 245 

ApJiceresis, 47 ' 

Apocope, 299 

Apostrophus, 47 ; prevents the inclina- 
tion of the accent, 30 

Artie, prcepos. (crasis), 45, 46 ; its sig- 
nif., 107, Note ; Synt. 327, sqq. ; 
with nouns proper, 328 ; with jo;-o- 
nouns, ibid. ; left out, 328, 06s. 4 ; 
separated from the sm6s^. 329 ; 
repeated, ibid.; with the injinit. 
and whole propositions, 331, 391, 
392, 395 ; with the part. 399 ; be- 
fore the relat. 331, 06s. 6 ; in 
Homer, 333 ; artic. postpos. as the 
original demonstrat. 332, sqq. ; in- 
definite, 327, 328, and compare ibid. 
Obs. 3,399 (1) 

Aspiratce, 33, 35, 36 ; changed into 



472 



ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 



5, 32; the lonians neglect aspi- 
ration, 33, Obs. 1. 213, 249. See 
(aXXojLiai) 

Atona, 28 

Attraction, 393 ; with the relative, 397, 
sqq. ; with the part. 403, Obs. 5 

Augment, before a vowel, 120, Obs. 5 ; 
before the prep, of a compound 
verb, ] 22, Obs. 2, 3 ; syllab. omitted, 
118, Obs. 6. 119, 06s. 2, 3; augm. 
temp. 119; syllab. with the temp. 
120 ; before and after a, prep. 123 ; 
in 'i<rTf]fii, 203 

Barytom, 24. 28, 06s. 1 

Ccesura, 21, 22 

Canon Dawesianus, 383, Note 

Casus of the verb with a derivated subst. 
and adj. 344 

Causativa, 239 

Characteristic of the verb, 133, sqq. 

Comparative with the gen. S'^wt. 353 ; 
double compar. 327 

Conjunctive, formation, 126 ; shortening 
of the vowel, 185 ; in w/xi, ibid.; of 
the aor. pass. 180, Not. 185 ; Conj, 
per/, pass. 152 ; perf. act. 371 

Conjunctive, Synt. 373, sqq. ; delibera- 
tivus, 373, 387 ; adhortativus, 373 ; 
instead of the future, ibid. ; with 
dv, 375 ; of the aoiist with av in- 
stead of the flit, exact, ibid. ; after 
historical tenses, 388 ; with firj, 
383, 417 

vowel, 124 ; ejected in verbs 
of jui, 197j sqq. compare 200, 06s. 
6, sqq. ; syncope of the same, 225 

s, see tenues and aspiratce ; 
simple cons. 36, 06s. 2 

Construction, Kara (rvveaiv, 340 ; with 
the relative, ibid. ; with the part. 
400 

Contraction, 42 ; omitted, 69, 06s. 3. 70 ; 
in dissyllab. in ew, 194. — See besides 
Resolution 

Copula, 340 ; omitted, 343 

Coronis, 45 

Correlativa, 110, 293, sqq. ; with the 
attraction, 395, sqq. 

Dative (subst.), 344, 356 ; for the gen. 



357 ; commodi, ibid. ; without ffiiv. 

358 ; (avTog) ibid. ; with the part. 
or adj. {rjdofisvii), Sec.) ibid. ; with 
the pass. 359 ; Dot. absol. 405 
Dat. as the form of adverbs, 291 

Declensions, 50, sqq. ; originally iden 
tical, 77, Note 3 

Demonstratives strengthened, 112, sqq 
295, 296 ; instead of the pron. re 
lat. 450 (4).— See Ellipsis 

Deponens, 241 ; forms tenses with pass. 
signif. ibid.; pass, and med. 241 
242 

Derivation of verbs from subst. 301 ; of 
subst. 305, sqq. ; of adj. 314 ; by 
composition, 318, sqq. 

Desiderativa, 304 

Diminutives, 313 

Dicer esls, 31 

Dialects, 1—7, 32, 40, 41, sqq. 43, 44, 
54, 55, 297, 298 

Diastole, 31 

Digamma, 14, 247, Note 3. 250, Note 

Diphthongs and shortening of long 
vowels, 22 ; improperly so called, 
42 ; separated, 43 ; in the crasis, 45 

Diplasiasmus, 36, 06s. 1, 2. 41, 140 

Double letters, 36, sqq. 32, g. 

Double themes and forms, 75, 95, 131, 
237, sqq. 

Doubling of consonants, 36, 140, 06s. 5. 
247, Note 3. 256, Note 20. 297, 
06s. 10 ; and long vowels, 41, 06s. 
17; of vowels, 43, 06s. 3. 195, 
06s. 10. 269 {Kpa'ivo)) 

Dual instead of plur. 51 ; of the verb, 
125, 06s. 6 ; 2 pers. instead of the 
3 pers. 184 (V. 3) ; Synt. 340, be- 
low ; of the subst. fem. with the 
adj. maso. 326, 06s. 1 

Ejection of a consonant, 43, 44 ; of a 
vowel, 44, 06s 7 ; in the root of 
the verb, 224, sqq. ; of the <t in 
the 2 pers. sing. 182,209; of the 
X, 271, Note 43 

Elision, 42, 45, 54 (IV. 5), 74, 195 ; 
does not take place with v, irspl, 
&c. 47 ; respecting the accent in 
prep. 390 ; of words in KXfjg, 73 ; 
on the meeting of words, 46, Obs. 
10, and § 30 



ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 



473 



Ellipsis, 453 ; Omission of the subst. with 
the art. and the gen. 330, sqq. 355, 
Obs. 8, 9 ; of the adj. 327 ; of the 
vei'b, 343 ; of the demonstr. 334, 
compare 344 ; forms a contraction, 
398, Note ; of the obj. 343 ; of the 
subj. in the accus. with the injin. 
392 ; in the second part of a sen- 
tence, 454 ; of the prep. 355, Obs. 7- 
— See besides Prepositions. 

Epicoenum, 49 sqq. 

Epics, Epic, 3, 7, 2, 45. —See Dialects 

Feminine gender, see Dual 

Final letters, 38, sqq. 

Forms, double, 75 ; simple forms of the 

subst. 77 ; of the adj. 93 ; old Ionic, 

194 
Frequentativa, 304 
Futurum, retains the long vowel, 139, 

sqq. ; med. instead of the act. 242 ; 

instead of the pass. ibid. ; Synt. 

Flit, indie, after relat. 381 ; after 

oTrojQ instead of the imper. 383 ; 

with av, 374 ; exactum, 375 ; with 

juj), 418, Obs. 4 
Futurum Atticum, 140 ; Doricum, 143 
Futurum secundum, 142. 255, Note 18 
Futurum teHium, 152 ; Synt. 371 

Genitke, Attic, 71 ; gen. as the form of 
adverbs, 291 ; Synt. gen. with to 
and ra, 338, 06s. 2 ; of the names 
of countries with their towns, 349 ; 
paHitixe, 350 ; its jyosltion, 329 ; of 
time and place, 350, 355 ; after dg 
Tovro, Toaoi'TO, &c. 351 ; with 
dvai, 352 ; with comparatives, 354, 
Obs. 5 ; for iripl, 355, 06s. 7 ; in 
exclamat. 355 ; peculiar cases : 
eUiv TTsdioio, &c. 351, Note ; tv 
ddojQ, 353 ; dyeiv x^ipoc, &c. 354, 
below ; gen. instead of dat. 358 ; 
gen. absol. 405 ; of the injin. (sVfjca) 
391 

Gentilia, 311 

Genus, of the word expressive of the 
whole (6 r'lfiKTvg rov xpovov), 351, 
06s. 1 



Hiatus, 14 ; after ri, on, and others, 45, 

06s. 1. compare 48, 06s. 3 
Hypodiastole, 31 

Tmitatira {verba), 304 

Immediatita, 239 

Imperat. in Bi, 185 ; futuri, 146, 06s. 9 ; 
tert. plur. 182 ; Synt. Imperat. aor. 
369 ; perf. 371 ; pres. with /i^, 418; 
after relat. 381 

Imperfectum. Synt. 366. 369, 06s. 4 ; 
and pres. conatus, 371 ; imperf. with 
av, 374. 379, and 06s. 4 

Tmpersonalia. Synt. 342 ; in the pa7i. 
407, 06s. 6, 7 

Inclioativa, 236, 305 

IncVmatio accentus, 28, 29, sqq. 

Indicat. pres. in the indirect speech. 
S'(/«f. 388, 06s. 3 

Tnjinitivus, in vai (accent), 181 ; aor. 1. 
act. (accent), ibid.; aor. 2. ibid. 
Note 2 ; in fiev, fitvai, 184 ; in ev, 
rjv, 185 ; S'j/wi. infinit. with dv, 
376 ; after wtrrs, 385, 390 ; as subst. 
neut. 391 ; after relat. and conjunct. 
302, 06s. ; expressing request, com- 
mand, 395 ; in intercalated sen- 
tences, 391 ; Rud jjart. as the com- 
pletion to certain verbs, 401 ; in the 
gen. (tvtKa), 391 ; Inf. absol. ibid. 

Intercalation of consonants, 34, 35 ; of 
vowels (t), 43, below ; with avrbg, 
106, 109 ; of the connecting vowel, 
125 

Intercalated sentences belonging to the 
oblique speech, 388, 06s. 3 

Interjectiones, 293 

Intransit. and transit. See Verba. 

Intersion, 451 ; of the subst. in the 
constr. with the relative, 397 

Ionic, forms in contr. verbs, 194 

Iterativa, 181 

Labials, changed into jit, 41 
Lengthening of vowels, 40, sqq. 74, 
Obs. 2 ; of the vowel in the root of 
the verbs in fit, 198. 201, 06s. 7. 
209, 210 
Linguales, before liquids, 37 
I Liquidce, easily doubled, 21 
j Long syll. before double conson. 4 1 



Heteroclita, 76 



Masc. of the adj. with a subst. fern. 326 



474 



ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 



see dual; masc. plur. with fem. 

sing. 341 
Medium, 127 ; Sijnt. 361 sqq. 
Metaplasmus, 76 
Metathesis, 229 sqq. 267 below, 284, 

Note. See also Transposition. 
Moods, see conj. and optat. ; Synt. 368 
Jfwto cum liquida, 16. 20, 06s. 13. 21, 

06s. 14; in the reduplic. 118 

Names of animals, 49 
Names of ri-w^j-s, 50 ; /S'j/^if. 328 
Names of tozcjis. Gender, 50 
iVasaZ sommJs, 12, 237 
Negative particles, 413 sqq. ; accumu- 
lated, 419; after negative verbs, 

419 
Neutrum, Synt. 338 ; as adverb, 291. 339, 

06s. 4 ; of the comparat. and superl. 

as adverb, 292 ; of the article, 338 ; 

of the adj. and predicate, 341 
Nomina propria, in vog from i^owe? 87, 

Note ; with or without the art. 328 
Nominative, with the infinit. 392, 393 ; 

iVow. absol. 406. See besides ^>ia- 

coluthon. 
Numerals, 9. 98, sqq. 

Object, not expressed, 344 sqq. ; only once 
expressed, 344, 06s. 1. compare 450 

(4) 

Omission of the subst. See Ellipsis 
Optative, its formation, 126; 3 pers. in 
OL and at (accent) 181 ; in oirjv, i^rjv, 
182, 06s. 3. compare 194, 06s. 4 ; 
in vr]v, vfxrjv, 209, 225 ; optat. aor. 
in tia, 182, 06s, 4 ; opt. ^^er/". 152, 
182 (3) ; opt. Synt. 372 sqq.; as the 
expi-ession of a wish or command, 
373 ; with av instead of the fut. 
375 ; after principal tenses, 388 ; 
after sTreiddv, orav, &c. ibid. ; in 
the oblique speech, 388, 06s. 3 ; ex- 
pressing repetition, 382 ; opt. per/. 
and /Mi. 37 1; with ju)}, 418 
Oratio obliqua, being changed into the 
direct speech, 388, 06s. 3. 

Participia (form), 127; in cjq and eig 
(accent), 181 ; in e<hg, 229 ; PaH. 
pres. oxytona, 217 {1) ; perf. fern, in 
aa, 229 



Partic. aor. Synt. 369. 403, 06s. 7 ; fa- 
turi, 400 ; pres. 403, 06s. 7 ; 2^^^^- 
with av, 376 ; neut. part. 407, 06s. 
7 ; instead of the abstractum, 338; 
its casus changed, 394, 06s. 2. 401 ; 
paH. and injin. as the completion to 
the signif. of certain verbs, 401 

Particles inseparable, 319; expletive, 431; 
^£, re, &c. between art. and subst. 
331 

Parts of speech, 48 

Passive tenses in the deponens, 242, 06s. 
6 ; pass, signif. with aci. form, 241, 
06s. 4 

Patronymica, 312; ^ocat 53 

Paullo-post-futurum. See Fut. 3 

Perfectum, 366 ; with the signif. of the 
pres. 240, 243 sqq. ; syncopated, 
150, 207, 227 sqq.; forms new 
themes, 231 ; without reduplic. 118, 
06s. 6 

Perfect 2 of verbs in fw, aw, 149, 06s. 
4 ; adopts the form of the pres. 
231, 06s. 1, 2 ; perf. 2 or medium, 
240 

Perfect pass, changes its accent, 181 ; 
without redupl. 120, 06s. 3. com- 
pare 227, Note ; perf. pass, as 
medium, 366 

Periphrastic form, 371 

Person, the second, of the pass. 182,201, 
204, Not. 242, Not. ; 3 pers. plur. 
pass, in arai, aro, 183 ; 2 sing, and 
3 plur. in lieu of owe, they, people, 
342 

Personalia omitted, 342, 8 ; in the accus. 
with the infin. instead of the nom. 
394, in the nom. instead of the ac- 
cus. 395 

Plural instead of sing, in pron. 104 (10) ; 
in collectivis, 340 ; plur. masc. with 
the fein. sing. ibid. 

Plusquamperf. act. Ionic and Attic forms 
in ea, 182; 3 plur. pass. 183 ; in 
the pass, the same form with the 
aor. 227, 06s. 4 ; with the signif. of 
the imperf. 243; without augment, 
syll. 118 

Position, 16, 20 ; occasioned by medice 
before X, ju, v, 17; by spiritus, 14 

Possessiva, 337, comp. 336; with the 
ari. 328, 06s. 2 ; the neuter 



ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 



475 



instead of the pers. pron. 338, 

Ohs. 2 
Predicate, without the art. 339 ; in the 

neuter, 341 ; without copula, 343 
Prepositions, 290; Synt. 409; accent, 299; 

without their cases, 411, Ohs. 8; 

before a pron. pers. 103 ; whether 

omitted, 344, 348, 349, 3. 354, 6. 

360, 391 ; shortened, 299, Ohs. 2 ; 

compounds formed with prep. 412 
Present tense, its form strengthened, 233; 

of the same signif. with the perf. 

243, sqq. ; pres. indicat. Synt. 370 ; 

of the same signif. v^^ith the perf. 

(fy/cw, &e.) 370 ; and imperf. cona- 

tus, 371 
Pronoun indef. expressing one, they, 

people, 336, 342 
Pronoun. See Demonstr. Relat. &c. 
Pura, 42 

Quantity, ex auctoritate, 17 ; in Poets, 
20, sqq. 

Radical vowel in verbs of jut, 216 

Reciproca, 106, sqq.; reciproc. signif. of 
the middle voice, 364 

Reciprocal influence in the formation of 
the language, 146, Note 

Reduplicatio proesentis, 233, 261, Not. 
276, Note; peculiar instances, 118, 
121, 122; in verbs of jui, 198; Attic 
reduplic. 121 ; in suhst. 307, c 

Reflexim, 106, Synt. 335 ; of the third 
pers. for the first, 336, Ohs. 5 ; 
omitted, 344, Ohs. 2 ; reflect, sig- 
nif. of act. forms, 240, sqq. 344, 
Ohs. 2 

Rdatitum (crasis), 46 ; constr. 380, 395, 
sqq. 447 ; with the art. 331, Ohs. 6; 
with the infinit. 392 ; {icith 7-egard 
to, respecting), 396 ; in lieu of two 
sentences, 396, 451 

Resolution of vowels, 43, Ohs. 3 ; of the 
infinit. in ilv and of the conj. aor. 
pass. 185 ; of the conj. of verbs of 
m, 209 sqq. ; in Uoj, 257 

Root, 51, 58, Not. 131, sqq. 

Schema Pindarlcum, 340, Obs. 3 ; fcaO' j 
okov Kai jU£poe, 347, Obs. 3 



Semivowels, 12 

Shortening of the contraction, 44 ; of 
the vowel after the Attic redupl. 
149, Ohs. 3; in the conj. 185, 
210 ; of the ^pers.plur. 184, 225, 
Ohs. 1 

Singular, instead oi plur. 339, 340 

Spii'ltus changed {crasis), 46 ; lenis in- 
stead of asper, 14 ; forms a, position, 
15 ; changed into c, 262, Note 28 

Subject omitted, 341, 342 ; subj. of the 
following verb as object of the 
preceding one, 448, 449 

Suhstantivum, 305, sqq. ; with the gen. 
or accus. of the verb, 344, 06s. 3 

Syncope, 67; in the conjug. 221, sqq.; 
as the foundation of the form in fii, 
200, 201. Compare Elision, 

Synesis. See Construction. 

Synizesis, or Synaloephe, 44, 46 

Tenses, principal and historical, 115, 

sqq. 124, 131, 136 ; in relation to 

the moods, 382, sqq. 388 ; in use, 

and not in use, 1 86 
Tenues instead of aspirates, 33, 36 
That, propositions beginning with on, 

d)Q, 386 ; rendered by the ace. c. inf. 

392 ; by the part. 401 ; by oTt, 

386 ; by d, 386 
Themes, 132 ; not in use, 132 ; new 

themes, 231 
Tliessaiian gen. 55 
Tmesis, 412 

Tragic forms, 153, 06s. 4 
Transposition of letters, 35, 06s. 2, 230, 

sqq. 

Verba pura, confracta, llquida, muta, 
131 ; intransit. and trans, to be dis- 
tinct from immediat. and caus. 239 ; 
intrans. with accus. 346, 365, 
06s. 1 

Verbal adjectives, Synt. 352,5, 1. comp. 
344, 06s. 3 ; in tsoq and toq, 159, 
343, 06s. 10. 360, sqq. 

Vocales ancipites, 15 ; puree, 42 ; long 
vowels and diphthongs, when short, 
2 1 , sqq. See Doubling and Length- 
ening of vowels 

Vocative of participles, 66 



GREEK INDEX, 

Tlie Numerals refer to the Pages, 



A, a, Boricum, 54 ; <pi\daio, 141 

a, changed into e, 195 

a, after s, i, p, 51, 87, 138 

a and o, before a vowel become at and 

ot, 40, Obs. 2 
a, for a?, 40, Obs. 50, 54, 140 
a, for T], 40, O65. 6 
a, for £, 40, 06s. 9 

a, prlvatiTum, 320; with adj. fern. 87 
— inteiishum, 320 
-a, quantity, 53, 64 ; in the accus. sing. 

72 ; in the adj. fern. 86 
-a, as adverb, 291, Obs. 3 
ddaToc, 246, Note 
duTog, 252 

dyav, in comp. 38, Obs. 3 
aye ^^, 432 
ayetv, 344 
"7X°^"^'^j 292 
a^i/cav, with accus., 345 ; with a double 

accus. 348, Obs. 4 
del, aid, 298; 6 dd, 442 
-a?w, inflect. 133, sqq.; derivation, and 

signL^. 186,303 
drjCujv, 77j Obs. 7 
'dOctparoc, 21, 06s. 14 
'AOrjvd, 53 

-a0ov, -a'0av, (verbs,) 236 
at, pronunciation, 12 
-at, elided, 48, 06s. 5 ; three similar 

verbal forms in at, 181, Note 3 
-at and -01, 26 

at Ks TriOTjrai, Tvx^li-t, 387, Note 
aiKla, 19 
aivku), 139 
-aivu), (verbs,) inflect. 157 l derivation 

and signif., 186, 303 ; from verbs 

in doj, 237 
aipkoj, 139 

•aipu), (verbs,) 157, 06s. 2 
atpw, aor. 157, 06s. 2 
dtct>, augm. 120, 06s. 2 
dKriKoa, 149, 06s. 3 
dKoveiv, constr. 353 and Note, 403 
aKpodofxai, 140, ^)6s. 6 



dXaXKiv, 145, 06s. 3 

d\r]9eQ, 439 

d\r]XL(pa, 149, 06s. 3 

dXXd, dXXd yap, 427, 434 

aXXofiai, aor. 157, 06s. 2 

dXXoQ, srepog, 336 ; with the gen. 354 

— dXXo ri, dXX' rj, 437 

— aXXo ri fi, 437 

I — dXXcjQ re Kai, 438 
ciXq, 61 
aX0i, 79 
dXwTTJ?^, 59 

ajLta, ( — Kai,) S^mtax, 441 
dfisXei, 439 
dfiirexo), 34, 06s. 3 
d/i^t, dfKpiQ, 291, Obs. 4; ot dficpi, 441 
dn^oTtpov, 111; S^-ntax, 438 
dfi(pu). 111 
dj/, sdv, ^v, 298 ; Syntax, 375; dv with 

the infin. and particip. 376; du 

omitted, 375, 378, 385 
dj^d, shortened, 299; 06s. 2 
dvd, ujJ ! up ! 300 
ava, vocat. QQ, Obs. 5 
dvdyK-i], Syntax, 343, 06s. 10 
dvrJTrTov, (augment,) 120, 06s. 4 
dvrjp, 20; dvep, 66, Obs. 1; dvi)p, 

with personal denominations, 327, 

q6s. 2. 
dv9' m>, 436 
dvla, 19 

-avoQ, quantity, 61 
dvvu), dvvTd), 139 
-dvb), (verba,) quantity, 237, 06s. 8. 
avwiarog, 286, ^'epoj 
dvb)T£pog, 98, Note; dvoJTspoj, 292 
dvujxOe, 228 
d^tT6,li6, Obs. 9 

ao, changed into eto, 41, 06s. 10. 44 
-ao, 2 pers. pass., 182 
-aog, -eojg, 41, Note 
uTrag, Syntax, 337 
direTpye, (augment,) 120, 06s. 4 
d7rt(p9og, 34, 06s. 3 
dwXoJg iiTTtii', 391, 06s. 5 



GREEK INDEX. 



477 



cnrb, shortened, 299 ; ciTro, ibid.; words 
compoimded with, 412, Obs. 11 

cnrodidpddKeiv, with accus. 345 

'AttoXXwv, 66; with long a, 21, Obs. 14; 
accus., 74 

awovkeaQai, (long a,) 21, 06s. 14 

a—wraVoj, 292 

ap, apa, 299, Obs. 2; apa and apa, 431; 
ap' ovv,ibid. Note 

apa, {aprj,) and ap^, 20, Note 

ape-)) and *Ap?jf, 96, Note 1 

"Apt],;, (a,) 20 

dpEd/jievog, Syntax, 442 

dpvoj, dpvToj, 139, Note 6 

apX>7V, adv., 291 

direjua, 306, Note 

-aai, local termination, 294 

-aoKov, temp, iterat., 182 

doaa, d(T<Ta, 110 

affcrov, 293 

-arai, -aro, 3 pi. pass., 183 

uTtpoQ, 46, 06s. 5. 

droQ, 246, Note 

drpsfia and dTpsfiag, 39, 06s. 2. 291, 
06s. 4 

arra, aVra, 110 

av, 430 

avTapKrjc, gen. pi., 69, 06s. 4 

avTOC, 105; Syntax, 334; casus obliq., 
335; dat. without cvv, 358; phra- 
ses, ibid. ; 6 avrbg, construction, 
356 

d(paipeXG9aL rivd ti, 347 

dcpvT], r), 54 

d-)(kwv, ovaa. 248, aKaRi^u} 

-axfj, -axov, 297 

a'xpi and dxpi£, 39 ; SjTitax, 408 

aw, with change of a into 5, 195, 06s. 8 

— derivation and signif. 186, 302 

— desiderativa, 304 

-awv, changed into -ewv, 54 

(3, inserted, 35, Obs. I. 230 
/3, arising from [x, 230 
jSaTTTO}, inflection, 134, 06s. 5 
jSamXevTspog, 98, 06s. 2 
Bau, numeral, 9 
/3)7(T£o, 146, 06s. 9 
jiXdimiv, with accus., 345 
|3Xd^, 94, Note ; 230, Note 
(36\i(Tee, 40, 06s. 3 
(Sop'sag, ^oppcLQ, 53, 06s. 1 



fSovXofiai, augm., 118, 06s. 5; ^ovXth 

183 
(Sovg, 70 
(3wg, /3(2v, 70 

y, (nasal sound,) 10, 12. 151, Note 3 

yap, 427, 454 

yy, before [x in the perf. pass., 151, 

06s. 7 
yf, 431; yt juei-, ye ixrjv, 432 
yEyoKaiJ^, 231, 06s. 1 
-yeXcjg, adject, compos., 91, 06s. 5 
ygpac, 73 ; yspd, ra, 45, 06s. 11. 74, 

06s. 3 
yew-, 318, 06s. 2 
yrj, 53, 06s. 1 
yripag, 73 
yXd(pv, 80 
yXixpit), 19 
ypai}g, 70 

^, characteristic, 133 

S, inserted, 35, 06s. 1 

Sdip, 66, 06s. 1 

daX,{t) 45, 06s. 11; 76, 06s. 5 

-d{, 30, 06s. 2 ; 294 

^f. Syntax, 424 

Sei^6y[xai, SsicsKTo, 256 

^aj/, phrases with, 345. 352, 5, 2. 356. 

391, 06s. 5. 438 
SsidOaL, with gen, of the pers., 352 
dscTTTora, 54 
devpo, 293, 06s. 8 
o^twrs, 293, 06s. 8 
hvrarog, 101, Note 1 
dkx^ai, 227, Note 
dsoj, 139, 06s. 4 
^>7, SjTitax, 432 

dijXSg a>i. Syntax, 386, 394, 402, 449 
-C)}v, -5ov, adv. 317 
drjTTore, appended, 296 
SfiTTov, SrjirovOsv, 433 
dTa, (a,) 86, 06s. 1 
Sidyeiv, diaylyvsaOai, SLareXtiv, with 

part., 404, 06s. 8 
SiKaiog tifxi Ttpdrreiv, 394, 448 
SiKTiv, Syntax, 348. 408, 06s. 2 
Slo, SioTi, 292, 06s. 5. 421, 
h->Pyu, 194, 06s. 5 
doio), doioi, 99 

60KOVV, absol,. Syntax, 407, 06s. 7 
dopv^s, 56, Note 1 



478 



GREEK INDEX. 



dvvafxaif augm., 118, Obs. 5 
dwarov, Syntax, 407, Obs. 7 
du(T-j compos., 122 
dvaeo, 146, Obs. 9 
Sio, 79, Obs. 3 

e, for a before liquids, 40, 06s. 9 

£, in verbs in aw, 195, Obs. 8 

e, inserted, 43, 106, 109 

£, connecting vowel, 124 

£, for £t, 40, Obs. 3. 

£, changed into et, 38, 40 

«, for tj, 185, Obs. 15 

a, Syntax, 335 

-ea for -rjv, 209 

-fat, -£o, 2 pers. sing, pass., 182; com- 
pare 195, 06s. 7 

eav, Tjv, av, 298,375, 378 ; compare 422 

-earo, 3 pi., 183, 195 

eavToVj Syntax, 335, 336; omitted 344, 
06s. 2 

kd(x), retains the a, 140, 06s. 7 

ej3rf<TSTo, 146, 06s. 9 

kypr)yop9e, 228, 06s. 5 

sy(^da, syi^fxai, 46, 06s. 9 

edofxai, 143, 06s. 18 

kdovi^ai, 142, 06s. 16 

kdiKTero, 146, 06s. 9 

UcrcraTo, 212 

erjv, from f//ii, 215, Note 9 

erjoQ, 81, Note 

WkXeiv, Syntax, 442 

Wr]i]TO, 196, Note 

ft, dipth., 12 ; resolved into rfi, 40, 
06s. 8; in dissyllabic words, 194, 
06s. 2 

ft, augm. temp., 119 

-ft, 2 pers. sing, pass. 183 

ft, with indie, and opt., 378 ; ft jwj), 414 ; 
ft St ju?7, 420 ; Et fit] Sid, 441 ; ft 
yap, si Kal, 422 

-ua, (nomina,) 53, 307, 309, 311 

'Sia, eiag, Sec, opt., 182, 06s. 4 

dSo), signif., 243, 06s. 10 

ihv, 213, Note 5 

I'lrjv, from ft/xt, /^o, 216 

dOe, 25, 06s. 2 

tiKa^M, augm., 120 

iiKocn, aiv, 39 

fiKwv, 77> 06s. 7 

fIXov, 119, 06s. 1 

-Eiv, instead of -r}v, 211, 212 



f ivai, verbum, omitted, 343; tivai, infin., 
Syntax, 444; tort and iarl, 214; 
'iariv 01, 439 ; 'iari, phrases, ibid. 

eiTTsp, elliptical, 453 

eig, with persons, 411, 06s. 5 

elaOa, Homer, 216 

f tra, 429 

f ira, eirsiTa, after particip., 403 

iirig, 422 

eicoQa, (augm.,) 119, 06s. 1 ; 149, Obs. 2. 

kic, see £? : ek unaltered before all the 
consonants, 36, 39 

UdrspoQ, eicacrrog, 111 

fKraorlpw, 292 

kKdvfxev, 258, Note 

ffCfT, sKfT^fv, g/cficf, 295 

SKsivy, SKiivijjQ, 297, 06s. 7 

«/c8xitpta, 34, 06s. 3 

eKTrayXog, 271, Note 

£X?7Xy0a, 149, 06s.3 

fX/itrc, 38, 06s. 2 

£/X0i ^OKflr, 391 

kv I'emains unaltered before <t and ?, 

37,38 
6v instead of elg. Syntax, 411, 06s. 6 ; 

ev toTq, 440 
evS6Tarog,98, Note; evdordro), 292 
kvSvu) Tivd Ti, 347 

fVf/ca, 298, 441 ; omitted, see Pr^pos. 
'iv(.Ktv, before consonants, 298 
evi, 'ivEGTi, 300, 440 
'ivQa, evOev, 296 
f ?, (£?,) 28 ; £^ and e/c, 35, 36, 39, 297 ; 

with the pass. 358 
t^apvog, 344, 06s. 3 
e^e<7Ti, 440 ; I'^bv, 407, 06s. 7 
'ioLKUf 'ioXita, &c. 120, 06s. 6 ; eoiica, 

olica, 224, Note 
koXrjTo, 259, f iXw 
fof, a, bv, 105 
sTTa^j), 34, 06s. 3 
fTTf I, 422 ; fTTftr}, 22. 298, 06s. I 
fTTfira, tTreiTtv, 298 ; after participles, 

403, compare 429 
iirecrov, 146, 06s. 9 
f TTt, for tTreari, 300 
STTicfTiiiJ.ojv, c. ace, 344, 06s. 3 
tTrXoJV, 226 

fp^i^ and (piXtiv, 353, Note 3 
'Epjusa^, 'Ep/i^g, 53 
epfi'svog, 260, fi'pw 
eppaSarai, 183 



GREEK INDEX. 



479 



hgvofxai, 140, Note 8 

epxscrOai, with particip. fut.j 442 

-f«ri(v), fi7<7i(i/), 67, Obs. 2 

saraaav and iaraaav, 207? 208 

£(Trf, 436 

sen, see £ix/ai 

£(Txarog, 97 

IrfpoToc, 113, Ohs. 2 

'irtpoQ, 111 ; Syntax, 336 ; with gen. 
354, Obs. 6 " 

STtialai, o\, 54 

IVt, 430 

%ToifxoQ, Syntax, 343, Obs. 10 

-ev and -oi, (vocat.) 25, 65, 66 

iv, for £0, 44, 06s. 5. 143, Ohs. 17. 156, 
183. 196, Obs. 13 

cu, instead of 77 in the fut., 1 40, Obs. 9 

£v, words compounded with, 122 

ivadov, 250, avSdvct) 

ev9i) and £v0i;e, 291, 298 

£vg, 43, Note 

-£vw, (m'6a,) 186, 302 

£(j)S(TTiog, as adv.y 327 

f0?;v, prset., 220 

£%£tv, ix^'^i Syntax, 444, sqq. 

Ixpjjt'j accent, 289, Note 

lipvyriv, 154, 06s. 8 

fw, 41, 06s. 10. 54, Obs. 5. 289, Note 

-fw, 186, 302 ; dissyllables in, not con- 
tracted, 194, 06s. 2 ; instead of -w, 
235 

ki^KHv, &c. 121, 06s. 9. 222, Note 

£oje, Syntax, 382 

I, 10. 36, 06s. 2. 37 ; characteristic, 

133 
-2f, 36, 06s. 2. 294, 06s. 2 
h]v, 194, 06s. 5 
-^w, frequentativa, 304 

?7, pronunciation, 10 

7], for a, 40, 06s. 7 ; in the crasis, 46 ; 

in the first declension, 54, IV. ; in 

the verb, 140, 06s. 7 ', in verbs 

ending in aw, 194, 06s. 5 
T], for a, 54 
77, for £, 40, 06s. 8 
?), he said, 220 
^ and ^, Syntax, 422, 423 ; rj fxrjv, 

Syntax, 432 
-r}at, 2 perf. pass. 182 
r] 5' OQ, 220 ; compare 333, 06s. 2 



?7£, for }), 298, 06s. 1 

^0of, compound adj. derived from, 69, 

06s. 4; words compounded with, 291 
?/i, for f I, 40, 06s, 8 
^"ia, ya, only imperf., 218 
TjKiara, 293 

?/(cw, Syntax, 370, 06s. 8 
r}\e, vocat., 79, 06s. 2 
^v dpa, 371, 06s. 9 ; ijv in lieu of rjvioe, 

293, 06s. 7 
a}i^ ^' lyu), 220 
jyjvi, 77Vi^£, 293 
7]7ra(pov, 145, 06s. 3 
-?;g, 7iom. heterod. 76, 06s. 4 
TJaOrjv, instead of present, 371, 06s. 9 
-r](n, 3 pers. sing. 201, 06s. 10 
-tjai, local termination, 294, and Note 1 
i]<r(T(i)v, 96, and Note 3 ; -i'jaaov, {tt,) 

293 
ijroi, 26, 06s. 3 ; in the crasis, 46, 06s. 8 
r]v, diphth., 12 
^Xh yXh 297, 06s. 10 

9, from the crasis, 46, 06s. 4 

0, instead of <t, before fi, 37, 2 
-6a, see c6a 

edTTToj, 135, 06s. 5 

6d(T(r(jjv, 34, 95 

OaTspov, 46, 06s. 5 

Oavfxa, Bb)vfia, 41, 06s. 11 

Qavfiacrrbv o<tov, 343, 06s. 10 

9{ivai and 0i;fii^, 34, 06s. 2 

Beiofxtv, 185, Note 9 

0£/zie, Syntax, 343, 06s. 10 

-9sv and -0£, 39, 06s. 2. 293, 297 

Qkpana, 9kpa7reg, 78, 06s. 8 

9^v, 433 

0J7(T9at, 196, Note 

-9i, imper., 185, 06s. 13. 198, 226, 227 ; 

adv. 293 
9oifidTiov, 33, 06s. 2 
Bpdaaio, 33, Note 

9pvTrT(x), characteristic, 135, 06s. 5 
9veiv, see BsTvai 
-9u), verbs, 236 

I and w, quantity of, in the penult of 
verbs in tw and voj, 19, 06s. 10 ; 
augm. 119 

1, elision of, 48, 06s. 3 

-I, termination of adverbs, 317 
I, demonstr., 109, 113,296 



480 



GREEK INDEX. 



I, subscript, in the crasis, 45, Obs. 2, b. ; 

in the local termination rjai, 294, 

Note 1 ; in tttj, &c. 297, Obs. 8 
-I, quantity, 64 
-lOj lov, lOQ, nominal forms, short, 19, 

Obs. 10; long, 309 
-laivoj, verbs, 157, 06s. 2 
-taw, desideratives, 304 
idpou), contracted, 195, Obs. 6 
ievai, Syntax, 442 ; isvai rov Trpoau), 

351, Note 
-t'^w, 186, 303, 134 
Wv, iOitg, 291, Obs. 4 
ievvrara, 293, Obs. 6 
'iXs(oQ, 41, Note 
ifisv, 'ijxivai, 216 
ti/, pron., 104, Obs. 6 
-IV, termination of the nomin., 60, Note 
'iva^ 'iva ri, 384, 421 
-ivoQ, (gen.) quantity, 61, Obs. 1 
-ivb), (verbs in,) quantity, 237, Obs. 8 ; 

from £w, 237 
Uop, 146, Obs. 9 
loniv, 185, 06s. 15 
'iTTTTog, r), 49, 06s. 3 
ipbg, hpbg, 44, 06s. 5 
ia9fibg, 306, Note 
'iaav, 223, Note 

-tcfcw, verbs in, instead of so), 236 
'i(Tog and laog, 20, 06s. 12. 41, 06s. 13 
-tw (verbs in), quantity, 19, 06s. 10 
-tw, in verbs ending in t^w, 141, 06s. 14 

fc, of the perfect 1. dropped, 150, 06s. 7 
K, for TT, (/corf,) 32, 297 ; changes into 

X, (in Kui,) 46, 06s. 7 
fca. Dor. instead of ks, 298, 06s. 1 
Ka0a, 292, 06s. 5 
KaJ, (crasis,) 46 ; Syntax, 423 ; kuI 

fxccXa, Kal irdw, ibid. ; Kal og, 333, 

and Obs. 2 ; Kal tl, kolv ei, 422 ; 

icai — ^£,424; Kui ravra, 438; Kai 

fxiijv, 432 ; KfliTTfp, 433 ; Kal wg, 

421 
Kaioj, inflection, 140, 06s. 9 
KaXew, inflection, 141, 06s. 12. 231 
KaXTd, 19, 06s. 10 
KoXbg and KaXog, 21, 06s. 12 
Kara, shortened, 299, 06s. 2 ; supplied, 

348 
Karaa%6cr0ai, passive, 243 
KUTsaya Trjg KUpdkrig, 351 



Kh, Ktv, 39, 422 

KSKXocpa, 149, 06s. 1 

KSKTrjjiiai, 118, 06s. 1. b. 

fcgXatvof, jxkXag, 32, 06s. 2 

/cspof, 73 

KepdavaL, 157, 06s. 2 

Krjvog, 106 

-Kt and -fcic, 39, 06s. 2 

/cXai'w, inflection, 140, 06s. 9 

-KX'srjg, KXrjg, 73 

KX£o/3i, 45, 06s. 11 

kX'ivoi), 159 

fcXvOt, 226, 06s. 2 

Kvdo), KVTjv, 194, 06s. 5 

KoiXdvai, 157, 06s. 2 

KoXaKevetv, with accus., 345 

KovZa, 19, 06s. 10 

KoTTTra, numeral, 9 

Kopv(7(xu), inflection, 135, 06s. 5 

Kpsag, 73 

/cpT, 79, 06s. 3 

Kpipov, TO. Kpivea, 82 

Kpivu), 159 

KpvTTTM, 135, 06s. 5, and Note 

/crsij^w, 159 

KVKiWV, 74, 06s. 

Kvvrspog, 98, 06s. 2 

KupfZv, with particip., 404, 06s. 8 

X, dropped, 271, XeXirifiai 

Xdag, Xag, 65, 06s. 1 

XavOdvHv, with accus., 345 ; with 

particip., 404, 06s. 8 
Xekto, 227, Note 
Xk\vTo, Hom., 152, 06s. 9 
Xk^eo, 146, 06s. 9 
XsovTsa, -TYi, 53, 06s. 1 
XtvKCLvai, 157, 06s. 2 
Xrjyio, see TraveaOai 
X'nra, XiTra, 82 
XicTcofiai, inflection, 135, 06s. 5 ; aor. 2. 

144, Note 4 
Xoirrov, rov, 438 

jM, inserted, 35, 06s. 1 

ft, dropped in the i-eduplication, 279, 

7ri/i7rX?;/it 
[xd. Syntax, 430 
fxadivnai, 143, 06s. 16 
jjiaOdiv, Tl, 444, sqq. 
liaKpdv, adv., 291 
fidXiara, 293 ; jidXiara fihv, 439 



I 



GREEK INDEX. 



481 



fxaWov, 293 ; jjidWov de, 438 

fidv, see fiijv 

-ftav, for -fiTjv, 184, Obs. 7 

fxdaTi, }xd(TTiv, 78, Obs, 8 

fiaaTi^ijo, 134, 06s. 1 

fiaxovfiai, 142, 06s. 16 

/igXf, (vocat.) 83, and Note 

fxsXXttv, augm., 118 ; Syntax, 371, 06s. 
11. 442 

[xkixvrjfiai, 118, 06s. 1 

flip, fxev — de, constructions, 424, sqq. 
&c. ; fxev for {xyjv, see jxrjv : /xiv- 
Toi, (crasis,) 46, 06s. 8 ; Syntax, 
432 ; jxsvrav, 46, 06s. 8 

-ixiv, -fXEvai, (infin.) 184, 06s. 9. 209 

-liBQ, for -[lev, 184, 06s. 8 

-IxsffOa, -[xscfOov, 184, 06s. 8 

fxkcrarog, 97, 06s. 

[xera^v, 441 

[Jiexp^, fisxpig, 39. 291, 06s. 4 ; Syntax, 
408, 06s. 1 

l-itj, constr., 413, sqq.; with conj. or opt. 
383 ; firj, in questions, 418 ; inde- 
pendent, 418 ; fij) before subst. 
417, 06s. 3; nrj ov, 419, 06s. 6 ; 
firi fiijv, 433 ; fxtj, ellipt.. Syntax, 
453 ; [xrj oti, Syntax, 435 ; rb fifi, 
416, 435 ; rov fxri, 391, 06s. 4 

-fiTj, subst., see /xog 

ix7)d6, 427 ; fi»J^e fkj 99 

firjdeig, firjOelg, 99 

fiijKETi, Syntax, 430 

fiTjv, Syntax, 432 

fxrjTTOTt, 297, 06s. 6 

^.iTjTTU), 297, 06s. 6 ; Syntax, 430 

[ir]Ti, Syntax, 427 

fiTjTi, fxr]Ti yi, 435 

-//I, instead of -w, 201, 06s. 10 

[lid, 53 

{.iifjvai, 157, 06s. 2 

fitfieXadai, with accus., 345 

fxiv, viv, 32, 104 

fxv, instead of Hfx, 265, rjfivoj 

fivda, jxvd, 53 

/uoyif, fioXig, 32, 06s. 2 

-/iof, <T/xog, (subst.) 306 

[iovariv, jjLovdijiiKtv, 46, 06s. 9 

V, at the end of words, 38, § 26. 114, 
06s. 3 ; in the imperf. of contracted 
verbs, 194, 06s. 3 ; v altered in the 
pronunciation, 38, 06s. 4 ; v in- 



serted, 265 {nnvu)) ; before the 
termination of verbs in w, 237 ; in 
du), 238 : in the perf. pass. 159 ; 
V before n, 159, 06s. 8 ; v with a 
privat. 320 

i^ot'xt, 25, 06s. 2 

vsarog, veiarog, 97, 06s. 

VT}-, 320, 06s. 12 

viij, 430 

vrjTT], 97, 06s. 

vi(j<TOjiai, 139, Note 4 

vi^a, Tiijv, 78, 06s. 8 

voatpi, IV, 39 

-i^rt, 3 pi. 184 

vv, vvv, 29, 39 ; Syntax, 433 

-will, from -w, 199, 237 

vvi^, vvv, 29, Note 1 ; Syntax, 433; vvv 
S^, 430 

^, termination of adverbs, 318 

?, instead of a in the fut. and aor., 139, 

06s. 2 
^ and ;//, pronunciation, 36 
-^ and -^z, 720J7Z. s?<6sf. 60 
^vv, words compounded with, 412, 

06s. 11 



0, in the perfect, 149, 06s. 1 
0, changed into ov, 40 

0, for u), 41, 06s. 13 

and a before a vowel, see a 

6, article, 107 ; tov kuI rot-, 333, 06s. 5; 

6 jxhv—b de, 332 ; oi dfi(pi, irtpi, 

441 ; 01 TOTE, 331 
Ue, 334 

0??, contracted into w, 253, /3oaa» 
oOovvsKa, 46, 47, 06s. 10 ; Syntax, 421 

01, pronunciation, 12 

Oi, for o and oy, 40, 06s. 2 and 4 

-01 and -at, quantity of, 26 

-ei, local termination, 294 

-01 and -tv, (vocat.) 66 

oUl, 183, 06s, 3 

-oirjv, 182, 06s. 3 

-OUV, 55, 06s. 4. 64 

otKa, 222, Note 

oUade, 294, 06s. 2 

o'lKoi and otKot, 26, 06s. 3. 294 

olKog, omitted, 330. 355, 06s. 9. 411 

o'lfioi, 26, 06s. 3 

-010, 55, 4 



1 1 



482 



GREEK INDEX. 



oloQ, with the infin., 396 ; used in at- 
traction, (o(V ye,) 399 ; olov hkoq, 
436 

olog T€, Syntax, 436 

oig, 70, 06s. 6 

-oTcra and -evaa, 196, Obs. 13 

-ottra for -ovffa, oiai for ouct, 184 

ol(T£, 146, 06s. 9 

olaOa, with imperat., 381 

olxof^ai, Syntax, 370, 06s. 8 

oXkw, 275 

oXiyoffTOQ, 101, Note 

6Xo7ra0»7, 42 ; of the 1st decl. 51 ; of 
the 3rd, 68, 06s. 2 

ofivv/jn, with accus., 345 

oov, 108, 06s. 1 

oTTodaTTog, 113, 06s. 1 

oTTorf, 422 ; biroTav, 382, 388 

oTTou, 387, 422 

oTTwg, 383 ; compare 387 

bpyavai, 157, 06s. 2 

OjO^at, 196, Note 

opaio, 146, 06s. 9 

-og for -oucj 55, 4 ; in the nom. sing. 
87, Note 

og, purnm, 62, 69, 70 

og, 331, sqq. 396, sqq. ; k(p' ^, kf' ^rf, 
dvO' c5j/. Syntax, 436 ; og fihv — og 
Sk, 332 ; o dk ttccvtcjv buvora- 
Tov, &c. 454 

ocov, elliptically, 436, 391 

oaog for wore with the infin. 396 

oaog, 396 ; oaov ov, 436 

orav, with opt. 388, 06s. 2 

OTS, 297, 06s. 9 

orfwr, orkoKn, 110, 06s. 4 

on, ori^, 298 ; or( /x?), 435 

ov, diphth., 13, 06s. 3 

ov, ovK, ovx, 39 ; Syntax, 413 ; ov be- 
fore a subst. 417, 06s. 3 ; ov fiij, 
373. I. 3 ; ov ixTjv, 433 ; ov jxt/jv 
dWd, ov fisvToi dWd, 433 ; ov 
TTcivv, ov (pri[xi, 417, 06s. 2 ; ov 
TTspi, Syntax, 435 

ov, see £ 

ovSe, Syntax, 427 ', ovSe elg, 99 ; oi»^' 
wg, 421 

ovdtlg, ovOelg, 99 ; ovdtig ocmg ov, 419, 
06s. 8 ; ovdev olov, 436 ; ovdev 
dW n, 437 
ovKSTi, Syntax, 430 
ovKovi', ovKovv, Syntax, 428 



ovv, 428 

-ovv, 296 

ovviKa, 46 ; Syntax, 421 

ovTTore, ovTVb), 297 ; Syntax, 430 

-ovg, ovvTog, 61, 06s. 5 

-ovcraa, names of places contracted from 

otcrcra, 42 
cure. Syntax, 427 
ovTi, Syntax, 435 
ovTog, lieus! 109, 06s. 3 ; Syntax, (as 

adv.) 334 ; phrases with, 438 
ovTiog, after particip., 403, 06s. 6 
ovx '^'^h o^X o(^ov. Sec. 433, sqq. 
ovxh 298 
oxj^si, 183, 06s. 3 

ow, forms'lengthened with, 195, 06s. 11 
-dw, (verbs,) 186, 303 ; in the 1 pers. 

not contracted, 194 



TraBujv, r'l, 444: 

irdXiv, before a consonant, 38, 06s. 3 

Tzagd, shortened, 299 ; Trapd with the 

pass. 358, 3 ; Tra'pa, 300 ; irapai, 

299, 06s. 1 
Trapaxgriiia, 292, 06s. 5 
TrdpeffTi, Syntax, 440 
Trdg, Syntax, 337 ; Travra, every one, 

339, 06s. 3. 
TTctrep, 66, 06s. 1 
TTidd for p-trd, 298, 06s. 1 
TTSivyv, 194 
TTSTrdvai, 157, 06s. 2 
TTSTTOfx^a, 149, 06s. 1 
Tr'sTToaOe, 228, 06s. 5 

TTSTTTafiai, TrSTTTTJljjg, 7tklTT(x)Ka, 118, 

06s. 1 
Ttkp, Syntax, 433 ; irkp, 108, 295 
Tzkpa, irkpav, 297 
TTfpi, omitted, see Prcepos. ; ot rrtpl. 

Syntax, 441 ; ov Trepl, 435 ; Trtpt 

TToXXov, 438 
TTlQi, 226, 06s. 2 
Triofiai, 143, 06s. 18; Triovfxai, 143, 

06s. 16 
TrXseg, 97, Note 

ttXt^v, TrXrjp el. Syntax, 408, 06s. 1 
ttXvvo), 159 
TrXdjg, 226, 06s. 1 
TTodaTrbg, 113, 06s. 1 
TToOku), 139, 06s. 4 
TTOttTv rtvd Tt, 347 



I 



\ 



GREEK INDEX. 



483 



(TToXXd) TO. TToXXd, 348 ; iroWov del, 
Setv, 391, Obs. 5. 438 

TToWaKig, Syntax, 441 

TToWoarbg, 101, Note 

HorreiSutv, accus. of, 74 

TTooToc, TTOcrratoc, 113, Obs. 1 

TTork and ttov, Syntax, 433 

TTOTi, 298, 06s. 1 ; abbreviated, ibid. 

TTOTvia, (a,) 86, Obs. 1. 93, 06s. 3 

Trpq,og, 92 

TrpjV, Syntax, 382, 388 

7rp6, (erasis,) 122, 06s. 1 

TTpoiKa, adv., 291 

Trpof, with the pass., 358 ; words com- 
pounded wdth, 412, 06s. 11; vrpoe 
<T£ Osaiv, 453 

TrpocrfJKov, (augm.) 120, 06s. 4 

TrpSau), TToppoj, 292 ; rov Trpocrw (t£i/ai), 
351, Note 

Trpori, 298, 06s. 1 

TrpoTov, Syntax, 438 

Trpovpyov, TrpovXiyov, 46, 06s. 9 ; adv. 
292, 06s. 5 ; TrpovpyiaiTtpov, 293, 
06s. 6 

TTT, characteristic, 133 

TTveXog, 271, Note 

TTvpbg and (Triip) rrvpog, 18 

TTw and TTwTTOTe, Syntax, 430 

TTWjuaXa, 439 

p, with a following, 52, 86, 138, 156 

p, always doubled, 36 

p, pp, 14, 36, 320 ; pp and pa, 32 

-paivb), verbs ending in, 157 

psa, psia, 97 

piyou), contr., 195, 06s. 6 

piTTTU), inflection, 134, 06s. 5 

<T, added, 35, 06s. 4 ; g added, 39 ; with 
alteration of the meaning, 204 ; 
-<r in the perf. pass. 151, Obs. 6; 
in the aor. 1. pass. 153, 06s. 1 ; a 
strengthening addition, 236, 06s. 7 ; 
in composition, 319, Note ; in de- 
rivat, of subst. 306 ; doubled in 
aor. 1, 140, 06s. 5 ; dropped in 
pass, terminations, 227, 06s. 3 

■aai, (TO, 2 perf. pass. 182. 199, 06s.2. 209 

'Eaixwl, numeral, 9 

ad for K, 32, 06s. 1. g. 

-o-e, adv. 293 

-(Ttiuj, verbs ending in, 304 

(T!]fiepov, rfiixtpov, 298 



-aOa, 184, V. 8 

•ffi, aiv, with names of towns, 38, 294 

-m, aiv, 3 pers. sing. 185. 201, 06s. 10 

-<yig, -cria, subst. abstr. 306 

(TKaTTTO), 135, 06s. 5 

-OKov, -aKoiiriv, temp, iterat., 181, 196, 

209 
-GKU), verbs ending in, 236 
(Tfidoj, aiiyv, 194, 06s. 5 
-(Tfiog, -p-og, subst., 306 
(Tff, rr, 32, 06s. 4. 133, 134, 06s. 2 
ardytg, arixig, 77j 06s. 8. 78 
ard^u), UTTjpii^u), aTiZ,M, 134, 06s. 1 
avv, see ^vv ; aw-, 37,38 
avvrjOrjg, gen.pl., 69 
j:,vpdKOvaai, ^vpaicoaiog, 42 
avaxsaOoL, pass., 243, 06s. 9 
acp-, enclitic forms, 29 
acptXg, 335, 06s. 3 
a(phspog, 337 ; oicn, 336, 06s. 5 
acpv^b), inflection, 134, 06s. 1 
axk, 226, 06s. 2 
axoirjv, 182, Note 
XuJicpareg, 66, Obs. 3 
awg, 92 

rd, see to. rd [xev — rd dk, 339, 06s. 4 

rdWa, Sj-ntax, 437 

Tdv, 46, 06s. 8 

rdv, J) Tdv, 84, and Note 

T dpa and rdpa, 46 ; Syntax, 432 

ravTo TovTo,just so, 349, 06s. 6 

Te, 423 

TsOvdvai, 150; compare § 110 

TsOpnnrog, 33, 06s. 2 

Tttv, Tiv, 104, 06s. 6, 6 

Ttivu), 159 

TiKuaOai, 143, 06s. 16 

Tea, Tov, 110, 06s. 3 

-Tsog, verbal, 159, 360 

Tfbg, d, bv, 105, 06s. 7 

Tspag, 73 

TSTXafitv, &c., 228 

TsTpacpa, 149, Note 

TeTprjvai, 157 

T£Tpu(pa, 149, 06s. 1 

TTivog, 106 

-r/?e, rj/p, rojp, subst. 308 

-TTjpiov, Tpov, 309 

Ti, Syntax, 435; t'i prjv, 432; ri ov with 
aor. 370, 06s. 6 ; tL xpwjuai avT(^, 
348; rt 7ra0wv, ti /ia^wr, 444, sqq. 

TiKTsiv, Syntax, 370, 06s. 8 



484 



GREEK INDEX. 



Tigj Syntax, 336, 342 ; between article 
and subst. 329, Obs. 1 ; omitted, 
343, Obs. 9 

Ttf, Ti, accent, 28, Obs. 2 ; quantity, 61, 
06s. 3 

TO, TO., Syntax, 331, sqq. 338, 1 ; ad- 
verbially, 331, Obs. 5. 339, 06s. 4; 
joined with the gen. 338, Obs. 1, 2 ; 
TO fxtj, Tov ju^, 391, 416, sqq., 435; 
TO ds, 435; to de fisyiaTov, 454; to 
sfibv, instead of lyw, 339, Obs. 2 ; to 
Xeyofitvov, to tov 'KoirjTov, 349, 
Obs. 6; with the infin. 391 ; to, kuI 
TO., 333, 06s. 5 

rot (crasis,) 46 ; Syntax, 432 ; rot, rot 
vvv, &c. ibid. 

Toi(Tde<T<n, 109, 06s. 2 

-Tog, verbal, 160, 360 

tots—6t£, 297, 06s. 9 

TovvavTiov, on the contrary, 349, 06s. 6 

TovTO, with gen. 351, 06s. 3 

Tpavfia, Tpiovfia, 41, 06s. 11 

Tpiijprig, gen. pi. 69 

TT, see (T<T 

Tvyxdvot}, with pai'ticip., 404 

TVVVOg, TVVVOVTOQ, 113, 06s. 1 
TVTTU), 142 

Tvxbv, Syntax, 407, Obs. 7 

V, augm. 119; instead of £U intheperf. 

pass. 151, 06s. 4 

VI, dipth. 12 

-vm, (conj. and opt.) 209 

-vvoQ (gen.), quantity, 61, 06s. 1 

~vvu), (verbs,) 186, 303; from verbs in 

vw, 237; quantity, i6ic?. 
vTral, 299, 06s. 1 
vTTo, shortened, 299; with the pass. 358, 

3 ; VTTO for vrrtaTi, 300 
-vpog, adj. (iJ,) 18 
-vu), (verbs ending in,) quantity, 19, 06s. 

10. 138, 139 

(pdvai, as prceteritmn, 219, 220 

^avfQog dm. Syntax, 386, 392, 402, 

449 
tpkpTepog, (p'spiffTog, 98, 06s. 2 
^ep(jt}v, Syntax, 445 
(pddvEiv, Syntax, 442, 404 
-0t, -tpiv, 39. 78, 06s. 9 72 2 
(poivi^, (poivi^, 61, 06s. 2 
^peg, imper. 226, 06s. 2 



(Ppi<7(r(t), 135, 06s. 5 
^poifiiov, 33, Note 
(ppovdog, 33, 06s. 2 ; Syntax, g43, 442 

X, before /i, 37. 306, 06s. 4 

Xaipeiv, with particip. 404 

Xaixai and x^^t^f^^bg, 35, 06s. 3 

Xa'piv, Syntax, 348 (9). 408, and Note 

Xe^iSojv, 77, 06s. 7 

XspsiMv, 96 

Xpaw, inflection, 140, 06s. 6; contrac- 
tion, 194, 06s. 5 

Xpfwv, indecl. 79, 289; Syntax, 343, 
06s. 10 

%p£we, gen. 85, and Note 

X9V(^Trig, 54, III. 1 



■ip, K, origin, 36 

i//afa>, ■'I'yv, 194, 06s. 5 

^t;%w, inflection, 154, 06s. 8 



w, in the Attic termination, short, 23 ; 
compared with the 3d decl. 77, 
Note; w for o, 41, 06s. 13; for o and 
ov, 40, 06s. 4 ; in the particip. perf. 
184; contracted from or], 2b3,^odio: 
in composition, 318, 06s. 2 ; -lo for 
-cjg, (adverbial termination,) 292 

-(1), (i)v, cop, (t)g, nomina, 76, 06s. 6 

w and w, 300, 06s. 4 ; w jusXt, see fxsXe 

-u) Tav, see rav 

wWoi, 46, 06s. 6 

-ojv, nomina, (decl.) 74, 76, 77, 310 

a)vaK, &c. 47, 06s. 10 

Mvriviov, (accent,) 30, 06s. 2 

'(ao, (2 decl.) 57, 06s. 3 

tj TTOiToi, 300, 06s. 4 

-(og, -u>g, (adv.) 290 

-ojg, nomina, 77 

u)g, bjg, 28 ; Syntax, 380 ; praepos., 408'; 
with ca>sus absol. 406, 06s. 5 ; iog 
evi, ijjg '^TTog eiTrelv, 391, 06s. 5 ; wg 
TTsp, 403, 06s. 6 

wOTf, construction, 385, 390, 394, 403 ; 
^ wtrre, after comparat. 386, 06s. 2 

-u)(T(t>, shortened and contracted, 141, 
06s. 13 

(OV, dipth. 13, 41, 106 

(jjvTog, 41, 06s. 11 

ijpeXtlv, with accus. 345; with double 
accus. 348, 06s. 4 

uKpsXov, 293, 06s. 7 ; Syntax, 439. 



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